Israeli-Palestinian Conflict in the Age of Social Media and Artificial Intelligence

Examines How Social Media and AI Reshape Global Narratives of the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict The Israel–Palestine conflict has long stood at the center of international attention, but in the digital era, it has taken on new dimensions shaped by social media and machine intelligence. Israeli-Palestinian Conflict in the Age of Social Media and Artificial Intelligence offers an in-depth, interdisciplinary examination of how digital technologies have transformed the ways the conflict is represented, debated, and understood. By tracing the algorithmic amplification of propaganda, the rise of digital resistance movements, and the weaponization of disinformation, this pioneering collection provides an urgent scholarly response to a conflict increasingly mediated through data, platforms, and AI-driven systems of visibility and control. Editors Innocent Chiluwa and Anna Szczepaniak-Kozak bring together leading and emerging voices from across the humanities, social sciences, and information technology to address the interplay between communication, power, and justice in an age of algorithmic mediation. Through critical analyses of discourse, media structures, and technological infrastructures, the contributors reveal how social media and AI shape perceptions of legitimacy, violence, and victimhood, influencing both public sentiment and policy. Offering fresh frameworks for understanding how digital communication technologies not only reflect but actively construct geopolitical realities, Israeli-Palestinian Conflict in the Age of Social Media and Artificial Intelligence Explores how algorithms, bots, and generative AI shape global narratives of war, identity, and resistance Offers interdisciplinary perspectives bridging linguistics, media studies, digital sociology, and political communication Provides new evidence of how digital propaganda and misinformation influence public perception and policy debates Demonstrates how online activism and AI-driven content amplify polarization and shape cultural imaginaries beyond the Middle East Introduces innovative methodologies in critical discourse analysis and digital ethnography for studying conflict communication The first comprehensive study of its kind, The Israel-Palestine Conflict in the Age of Social Media and Artificial Intelligence fills a vital gap in media and conflict scholarship. It is ideal for graduate and advanced undergraduate students, scholars, and researchers in linguistics, media and communication studies, political science, international relations, and conflict and peace studies. It is suitable for courses such as Media and Conflict Communication, Disinformation and Fake News, Algorithmic Media and AI in Communication, and Digital Ethics and Society within MA, MSc, and PhD programs.

Notes on Contributorsxiii Foreword xviii 1 Introduction: How Social Media and Artificial Intelligence Construct the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 1 Innocent Chiluwa and Anna Szczepaniak- Kozak 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 The Conflict in the Age of Social Media and Artificial Intelligence 2 1.2 Summary of Chapters 5 1.3 Concluding Remarks 8 References 9 Part 1 Constructing Warfare in Algorithmic and AI-Generated Content 11 2 War in the Digital Realm: A Critical Study of Online Psychological Warfare in the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 13 Mohul Sen and Nitesh Tripathi 2.1 Introduction 13 2.1.1 Defining Psychological Warfare, Propaganda, and Media Manipulation 14 2.1.2 Online Psychological Warfare and Manipulation 14 2.1.3 History of Digital Warfare 15 2.1.4 Impact of Digital Warfare on Global Security 16 2.2 Framing of War in the Media 16 2.2.1 Impact of Online Warfare 17 2.3 Methodology 18 2.4 Analysis and Findings 19 2.4.1 Posts by the Israel Defense Forces 19 2.4.1.1 Tweets by the Prime Minister of Israel 20 2.4.1.2 Tweets by the Israel Foreign Ministry 20 2.4.1.3 Tweet by Amichai Chikli— Minister of Diaspora Affairs of Israel 21 2.4.1.4 Tweets by Bezalel Smotrich, Israeli Finance Minister 22 2.4.1.5 Tweet by the Knesset, the Israeli Parliament 24 2.4.2 Posts from Palestine: Younis Tirawi, a Palestinian Journalist 25 2.4.2.1 Tweet by Husam Zomlot, a Palestinian Diplomat 26 2.5 Discussion and Conclusion 27 References 28 3 Algorithmic Imaginaries: AI- Generated Visual Narratives of the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 30 Emre Meriç, Rahmi Uysal, and Onur Aker 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Literature Review 31 3.3 Data and Method 34 3.4 Findings 36 3.4.1 Visual Representations of Prompt #1: Destruction and Combat Aftermath 36 3.4.2 Visual Representations of Prompt #2: Civilian Perspectives and Conflict Impact 38 3.4.3 Visual Representations of Prompt #3: Peace and Negotiation 40 3.5 Discussion: Visual Elements in Conflict: Comparative Semiotic Analysis Across Platforms 44 3.6 Conclusion 47 References 48 4 Generic War Imaginaries: AI- Generated Images of the Israel– Gaza Conflict in the Adobe Stock Controversy 51 Stefano Brilli, Laura Gemini, and Chiara Spaggiari 4.1 Introduction: War as a Mediatized Process 51 4.2 The Post- photographic Turn and Documentary Photography 52 4.3 Methodology 54 4.4 The Adobe Controversy: Background Analysis 55 4.5 Findings 57 4.5.1 Production Site 57 4.5.2 Circulation Site 59 4.5.3 Audiencing Site 61 4.6 Conclusion 64 References 66 5 “Digital Justice in Wartime”. Content Strategy and Advocacy in the Coded Scenario 68 Sara Concetta Santoriello 5.1 Introduction 68 5.2 Watermelon Strategy Beyond Advocacy and Elusion 70 5.3 Terrorist Content Moderation: A Cross- platform Comparison 72 5.4 Double Standards in Policy- making 78 5.5 Conclusions 81 References 82 Part 2 Digital Activism and Resistance 85 6 Legitimating War and Retaliation in #IsraelUnderFire and #PrayForIsrael 87 Innocent Chiluwa and Katerina Strani 6.1 Introduction: The Israeli– Palestinian Conflict and the October 7 Attacks 87 6.2 Legitimation in Discourse 88 6.3 Hashtag Activism 90 6.4 Data and Method 91 6.4.1 Van Leeuwen’s Analytical Framework 91 6.5 Analysis and Discussion 93 6.5.1 Legitimation by Religion, Spiritual Authority, and Mythopoesis 93 6.5.2 Rationalization of the Right to Self- defense and Right to Exist 96 6.6 Conclusion 98 References 99 7 Disputing the Archive: Palestinian Women Filmmakers, AI, and the Battle over Representation 104 Carlos Navarro González 7.1 Introduction: An Initial Silence 104 7.2 Cinema and Archive as Forms of Palestinian Resistance 105 7.3 Palestinian Filmmakers and Design of AI Technology 107 7.4 “Cheap Synthetic Realism” and the Language of the Occupier 108 7.5 Contented Visions of Woman and Nationhood 110 7.6 The Border and Palestinian Identity 113 7.7 Conclusion 115 Acknowledgments 116 References 116 Interviews 117 Filmography 117 8 Subverting Pro- Israeli Tweets and “Hasbara” on X 119 Rhon Teruelle and Damani Wicks 8.1 Introduction 119 8.2 Pro- Israeli Media Bias 120 8.3 Digital Activism 122 8.4 Methods 123 8.5 Summary of Findings 124 8.6 Discussion and Conclusion 131 References 133 9 The Social Obligation Paradox: #BlockOut and Celebrity Silence in the Context of the Israel– Hamas War 138 Hannah Blundon 9.1 Introduction 138 9.2 Research Design 140 9.3 Analysis 142 9.3.1 Digital Activism as Contemporary Political Engagement 142 9.3.2 Navigating Uncertainty: Information Gaps and the Demand for Clarity 144 9.3.3 Intimacy and Irritation: Parasocial Relationships, Anti- Fandom, and the Influencer Economy 146 9.3.4 Backlash, Accountability, and the Ethics of Celebrity Silence 148 9.4 Conclusion: Reframing Influence, Accountability, and the Paradox of Public Expectation 150 References 152 10 [Re]Framing Victimhood: A Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Digital Narratives on the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 155 Paulinus Nnorom, Oluwagbenga Kayode, and Bethel Obiyor 10.1 Introduction 155 10.2 Conceptualizing Victimhood in Digital Narratives 156 10.2.1 Victimhood in the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 157 10.2.2 Digital Media, Contestation, and Framing in Conflict Narratives 158 10.2.3 Conflict Cartoons as Visual Discourse 158 10.3 Theoretical Paradigm: Multimodal Discourse Analysis 159 10.4 Methodology 160 10.5 Analysis and Discussions 160 10.5.1 Representational, Interactional, and Compositional Meaning 161 10.6 Findings and Conclusion 166 References 167 Part 3 Disinformation and Propaganda 173 11 Disinformation, Propaganda, and Hate Discourses on the Israel– Hamas Wars 175 Esra Demirci 11.1 Introduction 175 11.2 Media Framing of International Conflicts 176 11.3 Methodology 177 11.4 Analysis 178 11.4.1 Anadolu Ajansı 178 11.4.1.1 October 7 Hamas Attacks on October 7 in Three Questions (Anadolu Agency, October 7, 2023) 178 11.4.1.2 U.S. President Biden: Too Many Innocent Civilians Have Lost Their Lives in Gaza (Anadolu Agency, February 13, 2024) 179 11.4.1.3 Reactions from Around the World to Israel’s Bombing of the Camp in Rafah (Anadolu Agency, May 27, 2024) 180 11.4.2 Al- Jazeera 182 11.4.2.1 What Happened in Israel? A Breakdown of How Hamas Attack Unfolded (Al Jazeera, October 7, 2023) 182 11.4.2.2 U.S. Pressure Could Derail ICC Arrest Warrants for Israeli Leaders (Al Jazeera, May 24, 2024) 183 11.4.2.3 What Do We Know About the Israel– Hamas Ceasefire Deal in Gaza? (Al Jazeera, January 15, 2025) 183 11.4.3 BBC 184 11.4.3.1 Hamas Blindsides Israel with Most Serious Attack in a Generation (BBC, October 7, 2023) 184 11.4.3.2 Top U.N. Court Orders Israel to Stop Rafah Offensive (BBC, May 25, 2024) 184 11.4.3.3 U.N. Says Worker Killed in Gaza as Israeli Air Strikes Resume (BBC, March 19, 2023) 185 11.4.4 Wall Street Journal 185 11.4.4.1 Israel Works to Expel Hamas Intruders and Secure Border (WSJ, October 8, 2023) 185 11.4.4.2 U.N. Court Orders Israel to Halt Some Military Operations in Rafah (WSJ, May 24, 2024) 186 11.4.4.3 Gaza Ceasefire Hit by Last- minute Delay (WSJ, January 19, 2025) 186 11.4.4.4 Overall Framing Tendencies and Code Relationships by Maxqda 187 11.5 Discussion 187 11.6 Conclusion 189 References 190 Web References 191 12 Algorithmic Bias in Social Media Platforms During Israel– Hamas War (2023– 2025): How Algorithms Magnify Divisive and Misleading Information 193 Muhammad Osama Shafiq 12.1 Introduction: The Digital Battlefield 193 12.2 AI Ranking Algorithms: Signals and Dynamics 194 12.3 Reinforcement Learning and Feedback Loops in Amplification 195 12.4 Platform Governance and Human- AI Moderation Architecture 196 12.5 Algorithmic Bias, Shadow Banning, and Content Suppression 198 12.5.1 General Concepts of Algorithmic Bias 198 12.5.2 Bias and Suppression in the Israel– Hamas Conflict 199 12.5.3 Legislative and Symbolic Context 200 12.6 Methodology 201 12.6.1 Findings from Personal Communication: Documented Cases of Content Restriction 201 12.7 Legal and Policy Influences on Algorithmic Moderation 204 12.8 Conclusion 206 References 207 13 Tactical Visibility: Algorithmic Affect and the Struggle Over Representation 209 Ayşe Aslı Bozdağ 13.1 Introduction 209 13.1.1 Visibility, Politics, and Representation 209 13.1.2 Algorithmic Visibility and the Politics of Amplification 210 13.2 Analysis and Discussion 212 13.2.1 Affect Above All: Infotainment 213 13.2.2 Gamified War 213 13.2.3 Glitches as Affective Cracks 215 13.2.4 Affective Algorithmics and Tactical Visibility 217 13.3 Conclusion 220 References 221 14 Weaponizing Lies on Social Media: Disinformation on the Israel– Palestine Conflict as Classified by PolitiFact 228 Aftab Hossain, Gregory John Simons, Abdul Kabil Khan, and Sakibul Alam 14.1 Introduction 228 14.1.1 Misinformation in Conflict Zones 229 14.1.2 Why the Israel– Palestine Conflict Is Vulnerable to Misinformation 230 14.1.2.1 Polarized Audiences and Confirmation Bias 230 14.1.2.2 Social Media and the Spread of False Narratives 230 14.1.3 Social Media, Misinformation, War, and Geopolitics 231 14.2 Methodology 232 14.2.1 Categories of Misinformation 233 14.2.2 Narrative Framing Techniques 234 14.3 Analytical Techniques 234 14.3.1 Descriptive Statistics 235 14.3.2 Cross- tabulation 235 14.3.3 Interpretive Narrative Analysis 235 14.3.4 Validity and Reliability 235 14.4 Analysis and Results 236 14.4.1 Quantitative Results 236 14.4.1.1 Narrative Framing Strategies 236 14.4.2 Qualitative Analysis 237 14.4.2.1 Amplifying Victimhood 237 14.4.2.2 Justifying Violence 238 14.4.2.3 Exploiting Historical Grievances 238 14.4.2.4 Other 238 14.4.3 Cross- analysis: Category vs. Narrative Strategy 239 14.4.4 Discussion and Conclusion 239 References 241 15 How IDF TikTok Videos Aestheticize War into Entertainment after October 7, 2023 246 Carolin Constanze Melz 15.1 Introduction 246 15.2 TikTok and the Culture of Spectacle 247 15.3 The Military- Entertainment Complex Amplified on TikTok 248 15.4 Theoretical Framework 249 15.5 Methodology 250 15.6 Analysis: The Spectacle of War on TikTok 252 15.6.1 Video 1: The Domestic as Theatre 252 15.6.1.1 Absence of the Victim 255 15.6.2 Video 2: Femininity as Soft Propaganda 255 15.6.3 Video 3: Bombing as Cinematic Performance 258 15.7 Conclusion: From Spectacle to Moral Numbness 261 References 262 Index 264