Principles of Human Anatomy, EMEA Edition

Immerse yourself in the spectacular visuals and dynamic content of Principles of Human Anatomy, 14th Edition. Designed for the 1-term Human Anatomy course, this 14th edition raises the standard for excellence in this discipline with its enhanced illustration program, refined narrative, and dynamic resources. Principles of Human Anatomy offers a rich experience, giving students the ability to learn and explore human anatomy both inside and outside of the classroom.

1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY 1 1.1 Anatomy Defined 2 1.2 Levels of Body Organization and Body Systems 3 1.3 Life Processes 9 1.4 Basic Anatomical Terminology 9 Anatomical Position 9 Regional Names 9 Planes and Sections 10 1.5 Body Cavities 14 Thoracic and Abdominal Cavity Membranes 15 1.6 Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants 18 1.7 The Human Body and Disease 19 1.8 Aging 20 1.9 Medical Imaging 20 1.10 Measuring the Human Body 23 Chapter Review and Resource Summary 23 / Critical Thinking Questions 25 / Answers to Figure Questions 25 2 CELLS 26 2.1 A Generalized Cell 27 2.2 The Plasma Membrane 28 Structure of the Membrane 28 Functions of Membrane Proteins 29 Membrane Permeability 29 Transport Across the Plasma Membrane 29 Kinetic Energy Transport 30 / Transport by Transporter Proteins 30 / Transport in Vesicles 30 2.3 Cytoplasm 33 Cytosol 33 Organelles 34 Centrosome 35 / Cilia and Flagella 35 / Ribosomes 35 / Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) 37 / Golgi Complex 37 / Lysosomes 39 / Peroxisomes 40 / Proteasomes 40 / Mitochondria 40 2.4 Nucleus 42 2.5 Cell Division 43 Somatic Cell Division 45 Interphase 45 Mitotic Phase 45 Control of Cell Destiny 47 Reproductive Cell Division 48 Meiosis 48 2.6 Cellular Diversity 51 2.7 Aging and Cells 52 Key Medical Terms Associated with Cells 54 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 54 / Critical Thinking Questions 56 / Answers to Figure Questions 57 3 TISSUES 58 3.1 Types of Tissues 59 3.2 Cell Junctions 60 Tight Junctions 61 Adherens Junctions 61 Desmosomes 61 Hemidesmosomes 61 Gap Junctions 61 3.3 Comparison Between Epithelial and Connective Tissues 61 3.4 Epithelial Tissue 62 Classification of Surface Epithelium 63 Surface Epithelium 64 Glandular Epithelium 71 Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands 72 / Functional Classification of Exocrine Glands 72 3.5 Connective Tissue 73 General Features of Connective Tissue 73 Connective Tissue Cells 73 Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix 75 Ground Substance 75 / Fibers 75 Classification of Connective Tissue 76 Embryonic Connective Tissue 76 Mature Connective Tissue 77 Connective Tissue Proper 77 Supporting Connective Tissue 81 Liquid Connective Tissue 84 3.6 Membranes 85 Epithelial Membranes 85 Mucous Membranes 85 / Serous Membranes 85 / Cutaneous Membrane 87 Synovial Membranes 87 3.7 Muscular Tissue 87 3.8 Nervous Tissue 89 3.9 Aging and Tissues 89 Key Medical Terms Associated with Tissues 90 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 90 / Critical Thinking Questions 92 / Answers to Figure Questions 93 4 DEVELOPMENT 94 4.1 Principles of Development 95 4.2 Embryonic Period 96 First Week of Development 96 Fertilization 96 / Cleavage of the Zygote 97 / Blastocyst Formation 97 / Implantation 98 Second Week of Development 100 Development of the Trophoblast 100 / Development of the Bilaminar Embryonic Disc 100 / Development of the Amnion 100 / Development of the Yolk Sac 100 Development of Sinusoids 102 / Development of the Extraembryonic Coelom 102 / Development of the Chorion 102 Third Week of Development 102 Gastrulation 102 / Neurulation 104 / Development of Somites 106 / Development of the Intraembryonic Coelom 106 / Development of the Cardiovascular System 106 / Development of the Chorionic Villi and Placenta 106 Fourth Week of Development 108 Fifth Through Eighth Weeks of Development 110 4.3 Fetal Period 111 4.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy 113 4.5 Labor 114 Key Medical Terms Associated with Development 115 /Chapter Review and Resource Summary 116 / CriticalThinkingQuestions 117 / Answers to Figure Questions 117 5 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 118 5.1 Structure of the Skin 119 Epidermis 119 Stratum Basale 120 / Stratum Spinosum 122 / Stratum Granulosum 122 / Stratum Lucidum 123 / Stratum Corneum 123 / Keratinization and Growth of the Epidermis 123 Dermis 123 Blood Supply of the Integumentary System 125 The Structural Basis of Skin Color 125 / Tattooing and Body Piercing 126 Subcutaneous Layer or Hypodermis 126 5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin 127 Hair 127 Anatomy of a Hair 128 / Hair Growth 129 / Types of Hairs 130 / Hair Color 130 Skin Glands 130 Sebaceous Glands 130 / Sudoriferous Glands 131 / Ceruminous Glands 132 Nails 132 5.3 Types of Skin 134 5.4 Functions of the Skin 135 5.5 Development of the Integumentary System 136 5.6 Aging and the Integumentary System 138 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Integumentary System 139 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 140 / Critical Thinking Questions 141 / Answers to Figure Questions 141 6 BONE TISSUE 142 6.1 Functions of Bone and the Skeletal System 143 6.2 Types of Bones 143 6.3 Anatomy of a Bone 144 6.4 Bone Surface Markings 145 6.5 Histology of Bone Tissue 146 Compact Bone Tissue 148 Spongy Bone Tissue 149 6.6 Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone 150 6.7 Bone Formation 151 Initial Bone Formation in an Embryo and Fetus 151 Intramembranous Ossification 151 Endochondral Ossification 153 Bone Growth During Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence 154 Growth in Length 154 / Growth in Thickness 155 Remodeling of Bone 155 6.8 Fractures 158 6.9 Exercise and Bone Tissue 161 6.10 Aging and Bone Tissue 161 6.11 Factors Affecting Bone Growth 161 Key Medical Terms Associated with Bone Tissue 163 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 163 / Critical Thinking Questions 165 / Answers to Figure Questions 165 7 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE AXIAL SKELETON 166 7.1 Divisions of the Skeletal System 167 7.2 Skull 169 General Features and Functions 169 Nasal Septum 188 Orbits 188 Foramina 190 Unique Features of the Skull 190 Sutures 190 / Paranasal Sinuses 191 / Fontanels 191 Cranial Fossae 192 Age-related Changes in the Skull 194 Sexual Differences in the Skull 195 7.3 Hyoid Bone 196 7.4 Vertebral Column 197 Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column 197 Intervertebral Discs 197 Parts of a Typical Vertebra 199 Vertebral Body 199 / Vertebral Arch 199 / Processes 200 Regions of the Vertebral Column 201 Age-related Changes in the Vertebral Column 201 7.5 Thorax 210 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Axial Skeleton 214 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 214 / Critical Thinking Questions 215 / Answers to Figure Questions 215 8 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON 216 8.1 Skeleton of the Upper Limb 217 8.2 Skeleton of the Lower Limb 230 8.3 False and True Pelves 235 8.4 Comparison of Female and Male Pelves 236 8.5 Comparison of Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles 236 8.6 Development of the Skeletal System 246 Key Medical Terms Associated with Appendicular Skeleton 248 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 248 / Critical Thinking Questions 249 / Answers to Figure Questions 249 9 JOINTS 250 9.1 Joint Classifications 251 Ligaments 251 9.2 Fibrous Joints 252 Sutures 252 Syndesmoses 253 Interosseous Membranes 253 9.3 Cartilaginous Joints 253 Synchondroses 253 Symphyses 253 Epiphyseal Cartilages 253 9.4 Synovial Joints 254 Structure of Synovial Joints 254 Articular Capsule 254 / Synovial Fluid 255 / Accessory Ligaments, Articular Discs, and Labra 255 / Nerve and Blood Supply 256 Bursae and Tendon Sheaths 256 9.5 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 256 Gliding 256 Angular Movements 257 Flexion, Extension, Lateral Flexion, and Hyperextension 257 / Abduction, Adduction, and Circumduction 258 Rotation 258 Special Movements 259 9.6 Types of Synovial Joints 261 Plane Joints 261 Hinge Joints 261 Pivot Joints 261 Condyloid Joints 261 Saddle Joints 263 Ball-and-Socket Joints 263 9.7 Factors Affecting Contact and Range of Motion at Synovial Joints 264 9.8 Selected Joints of the Body 265 9.9 Aging and Joints 281 Key Medical Terms Associated with Joints 283 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 283 / Critical Thinking Questions 284 / Answers to Figure Questions 285 10 MUSCULAR TISSUE 286 10.1 Overview of Muscular Tissue 287 Types of Muscular Tissue 287 Functions of Muscular Tissue 287 Properties of Muscular Tissue 287 10.2 Skeletal Muscle Tissue Structure 288 Gross Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle 288 Connective Tissue Coverings 288 Nerve and Blood Supply 290 Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber (Cell) 290 Sarcolemma, T Tubules, and Sarcoplasm 290 / Myofibrils and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum 291 / Filaments and the Sarcomere 292 Muscle Proteins 293 10.3 Skeletal Muscle Tissue Function 296 Contraction and Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 296 Sliding Filament Mechanism 296 / The Neuromuscular Junction 296 / The Contraction Cycle 299 / Excitation–Contraction Coupling 300 Muscle Tone 301 Isotonic and Isometric Contractions 302 10.4 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 303 Slow Oxidative Fibers 303 Fast Oxidative-Glycolytic Fibers 303 Fast Glycolytic Fibers 303 10.5 Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue 305 Effective Stretching 305 Strength Training 305 10.6 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 305 10.7 Smooth Muscle Tissue 307 10.8 Development of Muscles 309 10.9 Aging and Muscular Tissue 310 Key Medical Terms Associated with Muscular Tissue 310 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 310 / Critical Thinking Questions 312 / Answers to Figure Questions 313 11 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 314 11.1 How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movements 315 Muscle Attachment Sites: Origin and Insertion 315 Lever Systems 316 Effects of Fascicle Arrangement 318 Muscle Actions 319 Coordination Among Muscles 319 Structure and Function of Muscle Groups 319 11.2 How Skeletal Muscles Are Named 320 11.3 Principal Skeletal Muscles 320 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Muscular System 415 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 416 / Critical Thinking Questions 417 / Answers to Figure Questions 417 12 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD 418 12.1 Functions of Blood 419 12.2 Physical Characteristics of Blood 419 12.3 Components of Blood 419 Blood Plasma 421 Formed Elements 421 12.4 Formation of Blood Cells 422 12.5 Red Blood Cells 425 RBC Anatomy 425 RBC Functions 425 RBC Life Cycle 426 Erythropoiesis: Production of RBCs 426 Blood Group Systems 427 12.6 White Blood Cells 428 WBC Anatomy and Types 428 Granular Leukocytes 428 / Agranular Leukocytes 428 / WBC Functions 428 12.7 Platelets 430 12.8 Stem Cell Transplants from Bone Marrow and Cord-Blood 431 Key Medical Terms Associated with Blood 432 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 433 / Critical Thinking Questions 434 / Answers to Figure Questions 434 13 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE HEART 435 13.1 Location and Surface Projection of the Heart 436 13.2 Structure and Function of the Heart 438 Pericardium 438 Layers of the Heart Wall 440 Chambers of the Heart 440 Right Atrium 442 / Right Ventricle 444 / Left Atrium 444 / Left Ventricle 444 Myocardial Thickness and Function 444 Fibrous Skeleton of the Heart 445 Heart Valves 445 Atrioventricular Valves 445 / Semilunar Valves 447 13.3 Circulation of Blood 447 Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations 447 Coronary Circulation 448 Coronary Arteries 448 / Coronary Veins 450 13.4 Cardiac Conduction System and Innervation 451 Cardiac Conduction System 451 Cardiac Nerves 453 13.5 Cardiac Cycle (Heartbeat) 453 13.6 Heart Sounds 453 13.7 Exercise and the Heart 454 13.8 Development of the Heart 458 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Heart 460 Chapter Review and Resource Summary 460 Critical Thinking Questions 462 Answers to Figure Questions 462 14 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD VESSELS 463 14.1 Anatomy of Blood Vessels 464 Basic Structure of a Blood Vessel 464 Tunica Interna (Intima) 464 / Tunica Media 466 / Tunica Externa 466 Arteries 466 Elastic Arteries 466 / Muscular Arteries 466 Anastomoses 467 Arterioles 467 Capillaries 468 Venules 469 Veins 469 Blood Distribution 471 14.2 Circulatory Routes—Systemic Circulation 472 14.3 Circulatory Routes—Hepatic Portal Circulation 511 14.4 Circulatory Routes—Pulmonary Circulation 512 14.5 Circulatory Routes—Fetal Circulation 513 14.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Blood 515 14.7 Aging and the Cardiovascular System 516 Key Medical Terms Associated with Blood Vessels 517 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 518 / Critical Thinking Questions 519 / Answers to Figure Questions 519 15 THE LYMPHATIC (LYMPHOID) SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY 520 15.1 The Concept of Immunity 521 15.2 Lymphatic System Structure and Functions 521 Structure 521 Functions 521 15.3 Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation 523 Lymphatic Capillaries 523 Lymph Trunks and Ducts 524 Formation and Flow of Lymph 524 15.4 Lymphatic Organs and Tissues 526 Thymus 526 Lymph Nodes 527 Spleen 529 Lymphatic Nodules 531 15.5 Principal Groups of Lymph Nodes 531 15.6 Development of Lymphatic Tissues 542 15.7 Aging and the Lymphatic System 542 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Lymphatic System and Immunity 544 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 544 / Critical Thinking Questions 545 / Answers to Figure Questions 545 16 NERVOUS TISSUE 546 16.1 Overview of the Nervous System 547 Structures of the Nervous System 547 Organization of the Nervous System 547 Anatomical Organization 547 / Functional Organization 548 16.2 Histology and Functions of Neurons 548 Neurons 549 Parts of a Neuron 549 / Cell Body 549 / Nerve Fibers 550 Synapses 552 Neuromuscular Junction 552 / Synapses Between Neurons 552 / Neurotransmitters 553 / Structural Diversity in Neurons 553 16.3 Histology and Function of Neuroglia 555 Neuroglia of the CNS 555 Neuroglia of the PNS 556 Myelination 556 Gray and White Matter 558 16.4 Neural Circuits 558 16.5 Regeneration and Neurogenesis 560 Key Medical Terms Associated with Nervous Tissue 560 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 561 / Critical Thinking Questions 562 / Answers to Figure Questions 562 17 THE SPINAL CORD AND THE SPINAL NERVES 563 17.1 Spinal Cord Anatomy 564 Protective Structures 564 Vertebral Column 564 / Meninges 564 External Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 565 Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 568 17.2 Spinal Nerves 569 Structure of a Single Nerve 569 Organization of Spinal Nerves 571 Branches of Spinal Nerves 572 Intercostal Nerves 572 / Plexuses 572 Dermatomes Versus Cutaneous Fields 573 17.3 Spinal Cord Functions 584 Sensory and Motor Tracts 584 Reflexes and Reflex Arcs 585 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Spinal Cord and the Spinal Nerves 586 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 587 / Critical Thinking Questions 588 / Answers to Figure Questions 588 18 THE BRAIN AND THE CRANIAL NERVES 589 18.1 Development and General Structure of the Brain 590 Brain Development 590 Major Parts of the Brain 592 18.2 Protection and Blood Supply 593 Protective Coverings of the Brain 593 Cerebrospinal Fluid 594 Formation of CSF in the Ventricles 594 / Functions of CSF 595 / Circulation of CSF 595 Brain Blood Flow and the Blood–Brain Barrier 598 18.3 The Brainstem and Reticular Formation 599 Medulla Oblongata 599 Pons 601 Midbrain 601 Reticular Formation 603 18.4 The Cerebellum 604 18.5 The Diencephalon 604 Thalamus 606 Hypothalamus 607 Epithalamus 608 Circumventricular Organs 608 18.6 The Cerebrum 608 Structure of the Cerebrum 609 Cerebral White Matter 610 Basal Nuclei 611 The Limbic System 612 18.7 Functional Organization of the Cerebral Cortex 614 Sensory Areas 614 Motor Areas 615 Association Areas 615 Hemispheric Lateralization 617 Memory 617 Brain Waves 617 18.8 Aging and the Nervous System 618 18.9 Cranial Nerves 618 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Brain and the Cranial Nerves 633 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 633 / Critical Thinking Questions 635 / Answers to Figure Questions 635 19 THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 636 19.1 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems 637 Somatic Nervous System 637 Autonomic Nervous System 637 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Motor Neurons 638 19.2 Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathways 639 Understanding Autonomic Motor Pathways 639 Migration of the Neural Crest Tissue 641 Shared Anatomical Components of an Autonomic Motor Pathway 641 Motor Neurons and Autonomic Ganglia 641 / Autonomic Plexuses 641 19.3 Structure of the Sympathetic Division 643 Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons 643 Sympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons 645 Sympathetic Trunk Ganglia 645 / Prevertebral Ganglia 646 19.4 Structure of the Parasympathetic Division 646 Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons 646 Parasympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons 648 19.5 ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors 650 Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors 650 Adrenergic Neurons and Receptors 651 19.6 Functions of the ANS 651 Sympathetic Responses 651 Parasympathetic Responses 652 19.7 Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions 655 Autonomic Reflexes 655 Autonomic Control by Higher Centers 655 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Autonomic Nervous System 655 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 656 / Critical Thinking Questions 657 / Answers to Figure Questions 657 20 SOMATIC SENSES AND MOTOR CONTROL 658 20.1 Overview of Sensations 659 Definition of Sensations 659 Characteristics of Sensations 659 Classification of Sensations 659 Types of Sensory Receptors 659 20.2 Somatic Sensations 660 Tactile Sensations 661 Touch 661 / Pressure 661 /Vibration 662 / Itch and Tickle 662 Thermal Sensations 662 Pain Sensations 662 Types of Pain 662 / Localization of Pain 662 Proprioceptive Sensations 663 Muscle Spindles 663 / Tendon Organs 665 / Joint Kinesthetic Receptors 665 20.3 Somatic Sensory Pathways 666 Posterior Column–Medial Lemniscus Pathway to the Cerebral Cortex 666 Anterolateral (Spinothalamic) Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex 667 Mapping the Primary Somatosensory Area 667 Somatic Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum 668 20.4 Somatic Motor Pathways 669 Origin of Motor Pathways 670 Direct Motor Pathways 670 Indirect Motor Pathways 673 Roles of the Basal Nuclei in Movement 673 Roles of the Cerebellum in Movement 673 Role of the Brainstem in Movement 673 Vestibular Nuclei in the Medulla and Pons 673 / Reticular Formation in the Medulla, Pons, and Midbrain 673 / Superior Colliculus in the Midbrain 674 20.5 Integration of Sensory Input and Motor Output 675 Key Medical Terms Associated with Somatic Senses and Motor Control 675 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 675 / Critical Thinking Questions 677 / Answers to Figure Questions 677 21 SPECIAL SENSES 678 21.1 Olfaction: Sense of Smell 679 Anatomy of Olfactory Receptors 679 The Olfactory Pathway 681 21.2 Gustation: Sense of Taste 681 Anatomy of Gustatory Receptors 681 The Gustatory Pathway 683 21.3 Vision 683 Accessory Structures of the Eye 683 Eyelids 683 / Eyelashes and Eyebrows 685 / The Lacrimal Apparatus 685 / Extrinsic Eye Muscles 685 Anatomy of the Eyeball 685 Fibrous Tunic 685 / Vascular Tunic 685 / Retina 687 / Lens 690 / Interior of the Eyeball 690 The Visual Pathway 691 Processing of Visual Input in the Retina 692 / Pathway in the Brain 692 21.4 Hearing and Equilibrium 693 Anatomy of the Ear 693 External (Outer) Ear 693 / Middle Ear 694 / Internal (Inner) Ear 695 Mechanism of Hearing 699 The Auditory Pathway 701 Mechanism of Equilibrium 702 Otolithic Organs: Saccule and Utricle and Static Equilibrium 702 / Semicircular Ducts and Dynamic Equilibrium 702 Equilibrium Pathways 705 21.5 Development of the Eyes and Ears 707 Development of the Eyes 707 Development of the Ears 708 21.6 Aging and the Special Senses 709 Key Medical Terms Associated with Special Senses 709 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 710 / Critical Thinking Questions 711 / Answers to Figure Questions 711 22 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 712 22.1 Endocrine Glands Defined 713 22.2 Hormones 713 22.3 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 715 Anterior Pituitary 716 Posterior Pituitary 718 22.4 Pineal Gland and Thymus 719 22.5 Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands 720 22.6 Adrenal Glands 723 Adrenal Cortex 723 Adrenal Medulla 725 22.7 Pancreas 726 22.8 Ovaries and Testes 728 22.9 Other Endocrine Tissues 729 22.10 Development of the Endocrine System 730 22.11 Aging and the Endocrine System 731 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Endocrine System 732 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 732 / Critical Thinking Questions 734 / Answers to Figure Questions 734 23 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 735 23.1 Respiratory System Anatomy 736 23.2 Upper Respiratory System Anatomy 736 Nose 736 Pharynx 740 23.3 Lower Respiratory System Anatomy 741 Larynx 741 The Structures of Voice Production 743 Trachea 744 Bronchi 745 Lungs 749 Lobes, Fissures, and Lobules 751 / Alveolar Sacs and Alveoli 753 / Blood Supply to the Lungs 755 Patency of the Respiratory System 755 23.4 Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing) 757 Inhalation 757 Exhalation 757 23.5 Regulation of Breathing 758 Role of the Respiratory Center 758 Medullary Respiratory Center 759 / Pontine Respiratory Group 760 Regulation of the Respiratory Center 760 Cortical Influences on Breathing 760 Chemoreceptor Regulation of Breathing 761 / Role of Lung Inflation in Stimulation of Breathing 761 23.6 Exercise and the Respiratory System 761 23.7 Development of the Respiratory System 762 23.8 Aging and the Respiratory System 763 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Respiratory System 763 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 764 / Critical Thinking Questions 765 / Answers to Figure Questions 765 24 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 766 24.1 Overview of the Digestive System 767 24.2 Layers of the GI Tract 768 Mucosa 768 Submucosa 769 Muscularis 769 Serosa 770 24.3 Peritoneum 770 24.4 Mouth 772 Salivary Glands 773 Tongue 775 Teeth 775 24.5 Pharynx 779 24.6 Esophagus 779 Histology of the Esophagus 779 Functions of the Esophagus 780 24.7 Stomach 781 Anatomy of the Stomach 781 Histology of the Stomach 783 Functions of the Stomach 784 24.8 Pancreas 786 Anatomy of the Pancreas 786 Histology of the Pancreas 787 Functions of the Pancreas 787 24.9 Liver and Gallbladder 788 Anatomy of the Liver and Gallbladder 788 Histology of the Liver and Gallbladder 789 Blood and Nerve Supply of the Liver and Gallbladder 792 Functions of the Liver and Gallbladder 793 24.10 Small Intestine 793 Anatomy of the Small Intestine 793 Histology of the Small Intestine 794 Functions of the Small Intestine 797 24.11 Large Intestine 800 Anatomy of the Large Intestine 800 Histology of the Large Intestine 802 Functions of the Large Intestine 803 24.12 Development of the Digestive System 805 24.13 Aging and the Digestive System 806 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Digestive System 806 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 807 / Critical Thinking Questions 809 / Answers to Figure Questions 809 25 THE URINARY SYSTEM 810 25.1 Overview of the Urinary System 811 25.2 Anatomy of the Kidneys 813 External Anatomy of the Kidneys 813 Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys 813 Blood and Nerve Supply of the Kidneys 816 25.3 The Nephron 817 Parts of a Nephron 817 Histology of the Nephron and Collecting Duct 819 Glomerular Capsule 821 / Renal Tubule and Collecting Duct 821 25.4 Functions of Nephrons 822 Glomerular Filtration 823 Tubular Reabsorption 824 Tubular Secretion 824 25.5 Urine Transportation, Storage, and Elimination 825 Ureters 825 Urinary Bladder 828 Urethra 829 25.6 Development of the Urinary System 831 25.7 Aging and the Urinary System 832 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Urinary System 832 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 833 / Critical Thinking Questions 834 / Answers to Figure Questions 834 26 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS 835 26.1 Male Reproductive System 836 Scrotum 836 Testes 838 Sperm 842 Reproductive System Ducts in Males 843 Ducts of the Testis 843 / Epididymis 843 / Ductus Deferens 844 / Ejaculatory Ducts 845 / Urethra 845 Spermatic Cord 845 Accessory Sex Glands in Males 845 Seminal Vesicles 845 / Prostate 845 / Bulbourethral Glands 845 Semen 847 Penis 847 26.2 Female Reproductive System 849 Ovaries 849 Histology of the Ovaries 851 / Oogenesis and Follicular Development 853 Uterine Tubes 856 Uterus 859 Vagina 861 Vulva 862 Perineum 863 Mammary Glands 866 26.3 Female Reproductive Cycle 866 Menstrual Phase 867 Events in the Ovaries 867 / Events in the Uterus 867 Preovulatory Phase 868 Events in the Ovaries 868 / Events in the Uterus 868 Ovulation 868 Postovulatory Phase 868 Events in the Ovaries 868 / Events in the Uterus 870 26.4 Birth Control Methods and Abortion 870 Birth Control Methods 870 Surgical Sterilization 870 / Non-incisional Sterilization 870 / Hormonal Methods 871 / Intrauterine Devices 871/Spermicides 871 / Barrier Methods 871 / Periodic Abstinence 872 Abortion 872 26.5 Development of the Reproductive Systems 872 26.6 Aging and the Reproductive Systems 874 Key Medical Terms Associated with the Reproductive Systems 875 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 876 / Critical Thinking Questions 878 / Answers to Figure Questions 878 27 SURFACE ANATOMY 880 27.1 Overview of Surface Anatomy 881 Chapter Review and Resource Summary 903 / Critical Thinking Questions 904 / Answers to Figure Questions 904 APPENDIX A Measurements A-1 APPENDIX B Answers A-2 Glossary G-1 Index I-1