Hazards and Treatment of Wastewater Contaminants

OVERVIEW OF THE DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF POSSIBLE CONTAMINANTS IN WASTEWATER WITH INFORMATION ON TREATMENT METHODS FOR EACH CONTAMINANT Hazards and Treatment of Wastewater Contaminants presents the gist of extensive research that is being carried out on several contaminants, which pose a threat to the environment and living organisms. In Hazards and Treatment of Wastewater Contaminants, readers will find: Insights on the connection between water quality and water body deterioration Chapter-by-chapter discussion on different categories of possible contaminants in wastewater and different treatment methods used Information on specific contaminants such as dyes, pesticides, oil, pharmaceuticals, heavy metals, etc. that can render wastewater unsuitable for reuse Studies giving due emphasis to incorporating novel methods and integrating different techniques and materials for wastewater treatment Hazards and Treatment of Wastewater Contaminants serves as an excellent reference for professionals, researchers, and students in the fields of environmental science, chemical and civil engineering.

Preface xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Water Pollution: A Global Concern – Facts and Figures 2 1.1.1 Sustainable Development Goals 2 1.1.2 Climate Change and Water Stress 3 1.1.3 Wastewater and Its Types 5 1.1.3.1 Storm Water/Surface Runoff 6 1.1.3.2 Domestic or Municipal Wastewater 6 1.1.3.3 Agricultural Wastewater 7 1.1.3.4 Industrial Wastewater 7 1.2 Wastewater Characteristics 8 1.2.1 Color 8 1.2.2 Odor 8 1.2.3 Turbidity 9 1.2.4 Nutrients 10 1.2.5 Surfactants 10 1.3 Hazards of Wastewater and the Need for Treatment 11 1.3.1 Aquatic Ecosystem 11 1.3.2 Humans 11 1.4 Need to Treat Wastewater 12 1.5 Scope and Objectives of the Book 12 References 13 2 Overview of Contaminants 17 2.1 Contaminants 17 2.2 Harm Posed by Contaminants 18 2.3 Sewage Wastewater 19 2.4 Nonsewage Wastewater 20 2.4.1 Industrial Contaminants 20 2.4.2 Agricultural Runoffs 21 2.4.3 Oil Spill 22 2.4.4 Radioactive Contaminants 23 2.4.5 Microbial Contaminants 25 2.4.6 Emerging Contaminants 25 2.4.6.1 Microplastics 26 2.4.6.2 Surfactants 27 2.4.6.3 Pharmaceuticals 27 2.5 Detecting Contaminants 28 2.5.1 Physical Methods 28 2.5.2 Chemical Methods 29 2.5.3 Biological Methods 29 2.5.4 Electrochemical Methods 29 2.5.5 Advanced Analytical Methods 29 2.6 Removal of Wastewater Contaminants 29 2.7 Incidents of Contamination: Case Studies 30 2.7.1 Flint, Michigan Water Crisis (2014) 30 2.7.2 Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico (2010) 30 2.7.3 West Virginia Chemical Spill – Charleston (2014) 30 2.7.4 Contamination of the River Ganga in India 31 2.7.5 Minamata Bay Disaster (1932–1968) 31 2.8 Successful Elimination of Contaminants 31 2.8.1 Tuas Water Reclamation Plant (Singapore) 31 2.8.2 Wastewater Reclamation (Taiwan) 32 2.8.3 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) (Japan) 32 2.8.4 Constructed Wetlands (Sweden) 32 2.8.5 Bioreactors for Wastewater Treatment (Saudi Arabia) 33 2.9 Important Considerations 33 2.9.1 Education and Public Awareness 33 2.9.2 Prevention of Pollution at Source and Best Practices 33 2.9.3 Wastewater Management 34 2.9.4 Use of Technology 34 2.9.5 Research and Development 34 2.9.6 Polluted Water Body Restoration 34 2.9.7 Policies and Collaboration 35 2.10 Challenges 36 References 36 3 Sewage Wastewater: Sources, Characteristics, and Treatment 43 3.1 Characteristics of Sewage Wastewater 45 3.1.1 Sewage Physical Characteristics 45 3.1.2 Chemical Features of Sewage 46 3.1.3 Biological Features of Sewage 48 3.2 Treatment of Sewage Wastewater 49 3.2.1 Preliminary Treatment 50 3.2.1.1 Screening 50 3.2.1.2 Grit Chamber 51 3.2.1.3 Detritus Tank 51 3.2.1.4 Skimming Tanks 51 3.2.2 Primary Treatment of Sewage Wastewater 52 3.2.2.1 Sedimentation 52 3.2.2.2 Sedimentation with Coagulation 53 3.2.3 Secondary Treatment of Sewage Wastewater 54 3.2.3.1 Aerobic Biological Treatment 54 3.2.3.2 Anaerobic Treatment Method 62 3.2.3.3 Other Biological Methods 62 3.2.4 Tertiary Treatment of Sewage Wastewater 67 3.3 Case Studies 73 3.3.1 Sewage Treatment Plant: A Case Study of the Delawas District, Jaipur, India 73 3.3.2 Sewage Treatment Plant: A Case Study of the Okhla District, New Delhi, India 74 References 74 4 Industrial Contaminants 77 4.1 Industrial Wastewater 77 4.2 Wastewater Contaminants from Different Industries 78 4.2.1 Mining Industry 78 4.2.2 Agricultural Industry 78 4.2.3 Iron and Steel Industry 79 4.2.4 Nuclear Industry 79 4.2.5 Pulp, Paper, and Textile Industry 79 4.2.6 Food Industry 80 4.2.7 Organic Chemicals Industry 81 4.2.8 Recreation Industry 82 4.3 Categories of Industrial Contaminants 82 4.4 Monitoring and Detection of Industrial Contaminants 83 4.5 Transport and Fate of Contaminants in the Environment 84 4.5.1 Fate of the Contaminants 85 4.6 Toxicity of Industrial Wastewater 86 4.6.1 Impact on Waterbodies 86 4.6.2 Impact on Soil and Groundwater 87 4.6.3 Impact on Human Health 87 4.6.4 Impact on Biodiversity and Ecosystem 87 4.6.5 Impact of Some Specific Contaminants 87 4.7 Treatment Technologies 88 4.7.1 Adsorption 89 4.7.2 Membrane Separation and Technologies 89 4.7.3 Electro-technologies 91 4.7.4 Advanced Oxidation Processes 91 4.7.5 Integrated Techniques 91 4.7.6 Constructed Wetlands and Integrated Wetlands 93 4.8 Case Studies of Industrial Contamination of Water Bodies 95 4.8.1 Groundwater Pollution in Southeast Vietnam 95 4.8.2 The Elk River Chemical Spill, West Virginia 95 4.8.3 Minamata Disease (Kumamoto Prefecture) 96 4.8.4 Kala Shah Kaku Industrial Complex, Pakistan 96 4.9 Industry Best Practices 96 4.9.1 Zero Liquid Discharge 97 4.9.2 Advanced Treatment Technologies for Wastewater 97 4.9.3 Adoption of Green Alternatives 97 4.9.4 Regulatory Compliance 98 4.9.5 Industrial Wastes and Wastewater Through the Circular Economy 98 4.10 Challenges and Research Directions 99 References 99 5 Heavy Metals in Wastewater – Toxicity Assessment and Remediation 113 5.1 Sources of Heavy Metal Pollution 114 5.1.1 Point Sources 114 5.1.2 Nonpoint or Diffuse Sources 114 5.2 Toxicity Assessment 116 5.2.1 Effect on Aquatic Organisms 117 5.2.2 Effects on Plants 118 5.2.3 Effect on Human Health 118 5.3 Treatment Methods 123 5.4 Novel Methods for Aqueous Heavy Metal Remediation 125 5.4.1 Adsorption by Novel Adsorbents 125 5.4.2 Phytoremediation 125 5.4.3 Photocatalysis 128 5.4.4 Electrochemical Method 132 5.4.5 Nanotechnology for Metal Removal 133 5.5 Permissible Limits of Heavy Metals in Water Bodies 137 5.6 Case Studies 140 5.6.1 Kutubdia Channel in Bangladesh: Contamination of Water and Sediments by Metals 140 5.6.2 Heavy Metal Contamination of River Cauvery, Tamil Nadu, India 141 References 142 6 Dye Wastewater Characteristics and Treatment 153 6.1 Classification of Dyes 156 6.2 Toxicity Assessment of Dyes 161 6.2.1 Toxicity in the Aqueous Environment 162 6.2.2 Toxicity Effects on the Living Organisms 163 6.3 Treatment of Dye Wastewater 165 6.3.1 Physical Treatment 165 6.3.2 Chemical Treatment 166 6.3.2.1 Ozonation 168 6.3.2.2 Wet Air Oxidation 169 6.3.2.3 Fenton Process 170 6.3.2.4 Photodegradation 170 6.3.3 Biological Treatment 171 6.3.4 Novel/Hybrid Treatment Methods 175 6.4 Legislative Guidelines for Dye-loaded Wastewater 180 6.5 Case Studies 181 6.5.1 Textile Wastewater Treatment Plant – Arequipa, Peru 181 6.5.2 Efficiency Analysis of Textile Wastewater Treatment Plant of Foshan, China 183 References 184 7 Contamination by Oil Spills 191 7.1 Characteristics of Oils 191 7.2 Important Oil Properties 192 7.3 Oil Behavior in the Aquatic Environment 193 7.4 Impacts of Oil Spills 195 7.4.1 Impacts on the Environment 196 7.4.1.1 Marine Ecosystems 196 7.4.1.2 Coastal Ecosystems 196 7.4.1.3 Contamination of Water Bodies 197 7.4.2 Impacts on Humans 197 7.4.3 Economic Impacts 197 7.5 Detection of Oil Spills and Monitoring 198 7.5.1 Remote Sensing 198 7.5.2 Machine Learning and Deep Learning 199 7.5.3 Laser Fluorosensors 200 7.5.4 Ground Penetrating Radars (GPR) 200 7.5.5 Recent Techniques 200 7.6 Technologies and Materials for Oil Spill Cleanup 200 7.6.1 Some Important Studies 201 7.6.2 Innovative Techniques 201 7.6.3 Integration of Methods 202 7.6.4 Materials for Oil Spill Cleanup 202 7.6.4.1 Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology 204 7.7 Prevention 205 7.8 Important Factors in the Cleanup Activity 206 7.8.1 Environmental Factors 206 7.8.2 Nature of the Oils 206 7.8.3 Technological Factors 207 7.8.4 Organizational Factors 207 7.8.5 Socioeconomic and Political Factors 207 7.9 Treatment of Oil Spills 207 7.9.1 Use of Skimmers 207 7.9.2 Oil-absorbent Pads 208 7.9.3 Burning In Situ (Thermal Remediation) 208 7.9.4 Sorbents 209 7.9.5 Hot Water and High Pressure Washing 211 7.9.6 Oil Spill Dispersants 211 7.9.7 Oil Boom 212 7.9.8 Manual Labor 213 7.9.9 Bioremediation 213 7.10 Some Major Oil Spill Incidents 214 7.10.1 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 214 7.10.2 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill 215 7.10.3 Prestige Oil Spill 215 7.10.4 Montara Oil Spill 215 7.11 Disposal and Treatment of Wastes Generated 216 7.12 Strategies for Prevention and Mitigation 219 7.13 Legislation and Role of Authorities in the Cleanup of Oil Spills 219 7.13.1 The US Regulations 220 7.13.2 The UK Regulations 220 References 221 8 Pesticide Elimination from Hydro Environment 231 8.1 Classification of Pesticides 232 8.2 Scenario of Global Pesticide Consumption 237 8.3 Toxicity Assessment of Pesticides 238 8.4 Treatment of Pesticide Wastewater 241 8.4.1 Physical Treatment Methods 243 8.4.1.1 Membrane Filtration 243 8.4.1.2 Plasma Process 243 8.4.1.3 Ultrasonication 243 8.4.1.4 Adsorption 244 8.4.1.5 Evaporation Beds 247 8.4.2 Chemical Treatment Method 247 8.4.2.1 Iron-enhanced Sand Filters 247 8.4.2.2 Chlorination 247 8.4.2.3 Advanced Oxidation Process 248 8.4.2.4 Photochemical Degradation 249 8.4.2.5 Ozonation 249 8.4.2.6 Fenton Process 250 8.4.2.7 Electrocoagulation 250 8.4.3 Biological Treatment Methods 252 8.4.3.1 Pesticide Degradation Using Ligninolytic Fungi 252 8.4.3.2 Pesticide Degradation Using Bioaugmented Activated Sludge 253 8.4.3.3 Pesticide Degradation Using Microbial Consortium 253 8.4.3.4 Pressurized Activated Sludge for Pesticide Elimination 253 8.4.3.5 Combined Aerobic and Anaerobic Biological Treatment 253 8.4.3.6 Membrane Bioreactor for Pesticide Removal 254 8.4.4 Hybrid Technologies 257 8.5 Legislative Framework of Pesticides 259 8.6 Case Studies 263 8.6.1 Removal of Pentachlorophenol from Wastewater 263 8.6.2 Pesticide Removal from Secondary Wastewater of Waste Treatment Plant, Tunisia 265 References 266 9 Radioactive Contaminants 271 9.1 Detection of Radioactive Contaminants 271 9.1.1 Gamma Ray Spectrometry 271 9.1.2 Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC) 273 9.1.3 Mass Spectrometry 273 9.1.4 Alpha Spectrometry 275 9.1.5 Beta Counting 276 9.2 Methods of Treatment 276 9.2.1 Chemical Precipitation and Coagulation 277 9.2.2 Membrane Technique 279 9.2.3 Sorption 280 9.2.4 Photo-induced/AOP Processes 281 9.2.5 Bioremediation 284 9.2.6 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) and Ion Exchange 287 9.2.7 Evaporative Method 289 9.2.8 Integrated Methods 290 9.3 Case Studies on Radioactive Contaminants 293 9.3.1 Hanford Site, Washington, USA 293 9.3.2 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster, Japan 294 9.3.3 Mayak Facility and the Techa River, Russia 295 9.3.4 Chernobyl Disaster, Soviet Union 296 9.4 Technologies and Materials Studied for Radioactive Contaminants 296 9.4.1 Novel Technologies 297 9.4.2 Materials for Radionuclide Wastewater Remediation 298 9.5 Role of Regulatory Authorities 300 9.6 Challenges and Future Needs 301 References 302 10 Microbes as Contaminants 317 10.1 Treatment Methods 320 10.1.1 Primary Sedimentation 321 10.1.2 Coagulation-flocculation 322 10.1.3 Filtration 323 10.1.4 Conventional Disinfection 323 10.1.5 Chlorination 324 10.1.6 Ultraviolet (UV) Light 324 10.1.7 Ozonation 325 10.1.8 Waste Stabilization Ponds 326 10.1.9 Constructed Wetlands 326 10.1.10 Novel Methods 328 10.1.10.1 Carbon Nanotubes 328 10.1.10.2 Membrane Bioreactor 329 10.1.10.3 Biofilters 330 10.1.10.4 Advanced Oxidation Process 332 References 332 11 Pharmaceutics as Emerging Contaminants in Wastewater: Hazards and Removal Technologies 339 11.1 Sources of Pharmaceutical Waste 339 11.1.1 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Facilities 340 11.1.2 Healthcare Facilities 340 11.1.3 Personal Care Products 340 11.1.4 Veterinary Institutions 341 11.1.5 Wastewater Treatment Plants 341 11.1.6 Landfills 341 11.1.7 Other Sources 341 11.2 Types of Pharmaceutical Waste 341 11.3 Toxicity Assessment 344 11.4 Treatment Methods 350 11.4.1 Physical Treatment Methods 350 11.4.1.1 Autoclaving 350 11.4.1.2 Precipitation 350 11.4.1.3 Ion Exchange 350 11.4.1.4 Coagulation 351 11.4.1.5 Floatation Process 351 11.4.1.6 Solvent Extraction Process 352 11.4.1.7 Evaporation 352 11.4.2 Physio-chemical Methods 353 11.4.2.1 Advanced Oxidation Process 353 11.4.2.2 Photocatalytic Degradation 353 11.4.2.3 Electrochemical Removal 354 11.4.2.4 Ozonation 354 11.4.2.5 Adsorption 355 11.4.2.6 Metal–Organic Frameworks 357 11.4.3 Biological Treatment 358 11.4.3.1 Constructed Wetlands 358 11.4.3.2 Anaerobic Treatment 359 11.4.3.3 Activated Sludge Process 359 11.4.4 Novel Technologies 360 11.4.4.1 Membrane Separation Technology 360 11.4.4.2 Membrane Bioreactor System 362 11.5 Legislative Framework of Pharmaceuticals 363 11.6 Case Studies 365 11.6.1 Sewerage Treatment Plant, Ghana 365 11.6.2 Pharmaceutical Wastewater Treatment Using High-rate Algal Pond 366 References 367 12 Surfactants: Behavior and Remediation Process 381 12.1 Sources of Surfactants 382 12.2 Types of Surfactants 383 12.3 Toxicity Assessment of Surfactants 385 12.3.1 Surfactants and the Abiotic Environment 388 12.3.2 Surfactants in the Biotic Environment 389 12.4 Analytical Techniques for Surfactants 394 12.5 Treatment Techniques 394 12.5.1 Physical Treatment 394 12.5.2 Chemical Treatment 400 12.5.3 Biological Treatment 404 12.5.4 Integrated Treatment Methods 407 12.6 Legislative Framework for Surfactant Discharge 409 12.7 Case Studies 410 12.7.1 Surfactant-loaded Wastewater – Lion Corporation, Thailand 410 12.7.2 River Tigris, Iraq – A Surfactant Loaded Freshwater Source 410 References 411 13 Fertilizers and Nutrients 415 13.1 Fertilizers in Agriculture 415 13.1.1 Types of Fertilizers 417 13.1.1.1 Inorganic Fertilizers 417 13.1.1.2 Organic Fertilizers 418 13.1.1.3 Slow-release Fertilizers 419 13.1.1.4 Micronutrient Fertilizers 420 13.2 Hazards of Fertilizers in Water/Wastewater 420 13.2.1 Pathways of Contamination by Fertilizers 420 13.2.1.1 Leaching 420 13.2.1.2 Surface Runoff 420 13.2.1.3 Agricultural Drainage 421 13.2.1.4 Acid Rain Due to Deposition in the Atmosphere 421 13.2.2 Impact on the Water Quality 422 13.2.2.1 Eutrophication 422 13.2.2.2 Mechanism of Eutrophication 423 13.3 Consequences of Eutrophication and Nutrients in Water 423 13.4 Control of Eutrophication and Nutrients in Water 426 13.4.1 Regulating Nutrient Inlet in the Water Bodies 426 13.4.2 Improving Methods Adopted in Wastewater Treatment Plants 426 13.4.3 Management of Agricultural Practices 426 13.4.4 Public Contribution 426 13.4.5 Regulatory Authorities 427 13.4.6 Effluent Diversion 427 13.4.7 Phosphate Striping and Buffer Striping 427 13.4.8 Treatment Using Constructed Wetlands 427 13.4.9 Other Methods 428 13.4.10 Ecological Approaches 428 13.5 The USEPA for Nutrient Pollution 430 13.6 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 430 13.7 Policies and Schemes for the Use of Fertilizers 431 13.7.1 The EU Nitrates Directive (1991) 431 13.7.2 The US Clean Water Act (1972) 431 13.7.3 New Soil Health Card Scheme (2015) 432 13.8 Case Studies on Fertilizer Contamination 432 13.8.1 Dead Zone – Gulf of Mexico 432 13.8.2 Punjab – Groundwater Nitrate Pollution 433 13.8.3 China – Eutrophication of Lake Water 433 13.9 Efforts on Successful Remediation 434 13.9.1 Strategies Adopted in Denmark 434 13.9.2 Initiatives for Organic Farming in Europe 435 13.9.3 Wetland Restoration Techniques 435 13.10 Management of Fertilizer Use 436 13.11 Technologies and Methods for Nutrient Removal 436 13.12 Recent Studies on Nutrient Removal 439 References 442 14 Microplastics 453 14.1 Challenges in the Recycling of Plastics 454 14.2 Plastics to Microplastics 456 14.3 Toxicity Assessment of MPs 457 14.4 Legislation for MP Management 461 14.5 Treatment of Microplastic-containing Wastewater 465 14.5.1 Primary Treatment 466 14.5.2 Secondary Treatment 466 14.5.3 Tertiary Treatment 467 14.5.4 Newer Treatment Methods 467 14.5.4.1 Biomass-based Treatment 467 14.5.4.2 Membrane Technology 469 14.5.4.3 Advanced Oxidation Process 471 14.5.4.4 Electrocoagulation 472 14.5.4.5 Photocatalysis 475 14.5.4.6 Plasma Technology 476 14.5.4.7 Phytoremediation 477 14.5.4.8 Biotechnological Methods 478 14.6 Case Studies 481 14.6.1 MP Removal Efficiency of Wastewater Treatment Plants in Zhengzhou, China 481 14.6.2 Groundwater Contamination by MPs 482 References 483 15 Wastewater Treatment Technologies: Performance and Mechanism 495 15.1 Mechanisms of Different Processes 495 15.1.1 Adsorption 495 15.1.2 Ion Exchange 503 15.1.3 Membrane Filtration 504 15.1.4 Coagulation 506 15.1.5 Advanced Oxidation Processes 507 15.1.6 Fenton Process 508 15.1.7 Electro-Fenton Process 508 15.1.8 Ozone Treatment 508 15.1.9 Electrochemical Oxidation 509 15.1.10 Photocatalytic Degradation 511 15.1.11 Sonochemical Method 515 15.1.12 Biologically Assisted Degradation 516 15.1.13 Membrane Bioreactor 518 15.1.14 Constructed Wetlands 519 15.1.15 Phytoremediation 521 References 524 Conclusions and Recommendations 531 Index 535