Aquatic Pollution

Understand aquatic pollutants and their effects on global water resources Recognizing, controlling, and mitigating aquatic pollution remains one of society’s most difficult environmental challenges. Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text, now in its Fifth Edition, delivers a thorough account of pollutants affecting rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans. Written by a leading environmental scientist with decades of oceanographic research experience, this textbook examines every major pollution category from urban runoff to persistent organic pollutants. This edition features expanded coverage of global warming effects on oceans, including coral bleaching and thermohaline circulation changes with comparisons to the Permian-Triassic extinction event. New sections address ocean acidification and persistent organic pollutants. Updated case studies and the latest data on aquatic pollution and global temperature projections ensure currency. The book covers both freshwater and marine environments comprehensively. Readers will also find: Detailed analysis of thermal pollution expanded to include climate change impacts on ocean ecosystems and circulation patterns worldwide Coverage of acid deposition effects with new material on ocean acidification and its consequences for marine life and ecosystems Discussion of pesticides and persistent organic pollutants including their environmental fate, bioaccumulation, and ecological effects across aquatic systems Examination of nutrient loading, sewage disposal, oil spills, and urban runoff with updated research findings and real-world case studies Refreshed case studies throughout providing current examples of pollution challenges and mitigation strategies from around the globe Essential for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses in environmental science, zoology, oceanography, biology, and civil engineering, this textbook provides the depth practitioners need. Policymakers and environmental activists will also find it an invaluable reference for understanding aquatic pollution science and developing effective mitigation strategies.

Preface xv About the Companion Website xvii 1 Fundamental Concepts 1 Simple Food Chain Theory 2 Ecological Pyramids 3 Recycling and the Microbial Loop 6 Food Chain Magnification 9 Food Webs 10 Food Webs and Ecosystem Stability 12 Questions 13 References 15 2 Photosynthesis 17 Light Limitation of Photosynthesis 18 Nutrient Limitation of Photosynthesis 23 Nutrient- Enrichment Experiments 27 Long Island Bays 30 Canadian Experimental Lakes 32 Nitrogen Versus Phosphorus Limitation 33 Questions 37 References 39 3 Physical Factors Affecting Production 43 Physical Properties of Water 43 Water Column Stability and Overturning 45 The Importance of Overturning 48 Seasonal Production Cycles 49 Trophic Status 50 Susceptibility of Systems to Oxygen Depletion 51 Estuaries— A Special Case 52 Chesapeake Bay 55 The Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone 64 Questions 67 References 69 4 Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies 71 Case Study 1. Lake Washington 72 History of Eutrophication 73 Effects of Sewage Diversion 76 Nutrient Limitation 79 Oxygen Depletion 81 Water Clarity 83 Cyanobacteria 84 Theoretical Predictions 85 Case Study 2. Lake Erie 88 The Destruction of Fish Spawning and Nursery Grounds as a Result of Land Use Modifications 90 The Depletion of Fish Stocks Due to Overfishing 90 The Creation of Anoxic Bottom Water Conditions Due to Cultural Eutrophication 93 The Disposal of Toxic Wastes 94 Sediment in Land Runoff 97 Contamination of Nearshore Areas with Sewage Wastes 97 Remedial Efforts 99 Toxic Substances 99 Eutrophication 100 Prospects for Lake Erie 106 Case Study 3. Kaneohe Bay 116 Physical Setting 116 The Coral Reefs 117 Urbanization of the Watershed 117 Changes in Land Runoff 118 Sewage Disposal 120 Effects of Sewage Disposal 121 Response to Sewage Diversion 123 Current Status and Prospects for Kaneohe Bay 126 Questions 128 References 130 5 Nonpoint- Source Pollution 137 Definitions 137 Composition of Land Runoff 138 Types of Sewer Systems 140 Correctives Measures 142 Use of Settling Basins 142 Ground Recharge Basins 143 Combined Sewer System Overflows 144 Minimizing Runoff 147 Summary 148 A Case Study— Lake Jackson, Florida 149 Correctives 157 Questions 161 References 161 6 Sewage Treatment 165 Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatments 165 Secondary Treatment for BOD Removal 167 Trickling Filters 167 Activated Sludge 168 Pros and Cons of Trickling Filter and Activated Sludge Treatments 169 The Anaerobic Digester 170 Tertiary Treatment 171 Phosphorus Removal 172 Nitrogen Removal 173 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 174 Cost of Conventional Sewage Treatment 175 Land Application of Sewage 176 Results of Spray Irrigation Studies 178 Limiting Factors 185 Use of Sewage Sludge 186 Unconventional Sewage Treatment 190 Detergent Phosphates 191 Questions 195 References 196 7 Pathogens in Natural Waters 201 Sources of Pathogens 204 Types of Pathogens and Their Detection 204 Bacterial Pathogens 206 Protozoan Pathogens 212 Viral Pathogens 214 Helminths 219 Tests for Pathogens 220 Treatment of Public Water Supplies 225 Removal of Suspended Solids 225 Filtration 226 Chlorination 227 Alternatives to Chlorination 227 Impact of Treatment 228 Questions 229 References 230 8 Toxicology 235 The Role of Toxicology in Water Quality Management 235 Kinds of Toxicity 237 Sublethal Effects 237 Reproduction 238 Development and Growth 241 Behavior 243 Determination of Toxicity 244 Acute Toxicity Determination 245 Chronic Toxicity Determination 245 Median Survival Times 246 Incipient Lethal Levels 247 Sublethal Effects 248 Water Quality Standards 249 Acute Effects 249 Chronic Toxicity 252 Acute/Chronic Ratios 252 Toxicity to Plants 253 The Two- Number Criterion 254 Complicating Factors 255 Interactions with Harmless Substances or Conditions 255 Incorporation into Water Quality Guidelines 256 Conditioning and Acclimation 258 Interactions Between Toxic Substances 260 Public Health 263 Noncarcinogenic Effects 263 Application to Cadmium 266 Carcinogenic Effects 268 Protection of Wildlife 270 Commentary 271 Questions 272 References 274 9 Industrial Pollution 279 The Oxygen Sag 280 Innovative Strategies for Reducing Industrial Pollution 281 The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Industry 285 Sugar Cane Production: Field Operations 288 Sugar Cane Production: Harvesting 288 Sugar Cane Production: Factory Operations 289 Survey of Water Pollution Problems 291 Response to the EPA Survey 292 The Decline of the Industry 293 The Pulp and Paper Industry 295 Steps in the Production of Paper 298 Objectionable Characteristics of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent 301 Suspended Solids 301 Dissolved Organics 303 Toxic Substances 305 Wastewater Treatment 306 A Case Study— The Buckeye Cellulose Corporation Pulp and Paper Mill at Perry, Florida 307 Commentary 310 Questions 312 References 313 10 Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants 317 Classification of Pesticides 319 Mode of Action 321 Pesticide Use 322 Public Health 323 Use of DDT to Control Malaria 323 Agriculture 325 Forestry 328 Pesticide Effects on Nontarget Species 329 Forest Spraying with DDT to Control Spruce Budworms in New Brunswick, Canada 329 DDD Treatment to Control Gnat Populations on Clear Lake, California 330 Exaggerated and/or Erroneous Charges Against Pesticide Use 331 The Destruction of Speckled Sea Trout in the Laguna Madre, Texas 332 DDT Reduces Photosynthesis by Marine Phytoplankton 333 DDT Residues of 5 ppm (Wet Weight) in the Eggs of Freshwater Trout Result in 100% Mortality of Fry 335 DDT Causes Cancer 337 Implications 339 Pesticide Persistence in the Biosphere and Food Chain Magnification 339 Pesticide Effects on Birds 343 Field Observations 344 Laboratory Studies 347 Summary of Pesticide Effects on Birds 350 Pest Resistance 350 Mechanisms of Resistance 351 The Cost of Pest Resistance 352 Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticide Use 352 Biological Control 353 Natural Predators and Parasites 353 Pathogens and Natural Toxins 354 Genetic Control 355 Resistant Plants 355 Sterile Males 356 Chemical Control 358 Integrated Pest Management 359 Commentary 361 EPA Hearings, January 13, 1972. Afternoon Session 363 Persistent Organic Pollutants 367 Polychlorinated Biphenyls 367 Problems with PCBs 369 Persistence of PCBs 371 Questions 373 References 375 11 Thermal Pollution and Global Warming 383 Power Plant Design 384 Water Quality Criteria 385 Cooling Water System Characteristics 386 Toxic Effects of Effluent Waters on Biota 387 Sublethal Effects 389 Commentary 391 A Case Study— The Florida Power and Light Power Plant at Turkey Point 392 The Study Area 392 The Power Plant 393 Effects on Biota 394 Modifications 396 Commentary 397 Correctives 398 Cooling Canals 398 Cooling Towers 399 Problems 400 Internal Plant Kills 401 Screen Impingements 401 Inner Plant Kills 404 Commentary 405 Correctives 407 Possible Beneficial Uses of Thermal Discharges 409 Cogeneration Power Plants 409 Agriculture 411 Aquaculture 412 Other Uses 415 Global Warming 416 Questions 430 References 431 12 Metals 437 The Question of Biological Magnification 440 Case Studies 442 Mercury 442 Production and Uses 442 Fluxes to the Environment 447 Speciation of Mercury and Toxicology 451 Acceptable Levels of Exposure 454 Minamata Bay— A Case Study 457 Seafood Consumption 463 Cadmium 465 Distribution, Production, and Uses 465 Emissions to the Environment 469 Natural Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 470 Anthropogenic Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 470 Toxicity 470 Itai- Itai Disease— A Case Study 473 Correctives and Prospects for the Future 476 Lead 477 Production and Use 477 Emissions 484 Toxicology 489 Commentary 492 Questions 495 References 497 13 Oil Pollution 505 Oil Discharges to the Marine Environment 506 Natural Sources 507 Marine Seeps 507 Anthropogenic Sources 508 Platforms 508 Atmospheric Deposition 508 Produced Waters 508 Pipeline Spills 509 Tanker Spills 509 Operational Discharges (Cargo Washings) 512 Coastal Facility Spills (Refined Products) 513 Atmospheric Deposition 513 Land- Based Runoff 513 Recreational Marine Vessels 514 Spills (Non- tankers) 514 Operational Discharges (Vessels ≥100 GT) 514 Operational Discharges (Vessels