Discovering Physical Geography

With Wiley’s Enhanced E-Text, you get all the benefits of a downloadable, reflowable eBook with added resources to make your study time more effective, including: • Visual Concept Checks • Imbedded Glossary with clickable references & key words • Show & Hide Solutions with automatic feedback Arbogast’s Discovering Physical Geography, 4th Edition provides interactive questions that help readers comprehend important Earth processes. The Fourth Edition continues to place great emphasis on how relevant physical geography is to each reader’s life. With an enhanced focus on the interconnections between humans and their environment, this text includes increased coverage of population growth and its impact on the environment. Updated case studies are included, as well as new sections dealing with human interactions with solar energy, wind power, soils, and petroleum. This text is welcoming, taking readers on a tour of “discovery”, and delivers content that is sound and based on the most current scientific research.

Preface vii A Guide to the Features xii 1 Introduction to Physical Geography 1 The Scope of Geography 2 Defining Physical Geography 3 The Earth’s Four Spheres 6 Organization of This Book 8 Exploring Cause-and-Effect Relationships Holistically 8 Emphasis on Human Interactions with the Environment 8 Geo Media Library: An Interactive Tool 9 Focus on Geographical Literacy 9 Physical Geography is Interesting, Exciting, and Very Relevant to Your Life 9 Geo Media: Stream Meandering 10 Check Your Understanding 10 2 The Geographer’s Tools 11 The Geographic Grid 12 Latitude 13 Longitude 15 Using the Geographic Grid 16 Geo Media: Using the Geographic Grid 17 Human Interactions: The United States Public Land Survey 17 Maps—The Basic Tool of Geographers 19 Map Projections 19 Map Scale 24 Isolines 26 Geo Media: Using Maps 26 Digital Technology in Geography 27 Remote Sensing 27 Global Positioning Systems 32 Geographic Information Systems 34 Geo Media: Using a Geographic Information System 34 Summary of Key Concepts 35 Check Your Understanding 35 3 Earth–Sun Geometry and the Seasons 36 Our Place in Space 37 The Shape of Earth 37 Earth’s Orbit Around the Sun 38 The Earth’s Rotation and Axial Tilt 39 The Seasons 42 Solstice and Equinox 43 Human Interactions: How We See Earth–Sun Geometry on Earth 45 Day and Night 45 Geo Media: Orbital View and Earth as Viewed from the Sun 46 Seasonal Changes in Sun Position (Angle) and Length of Day 46 Geo Media: Celestial Dome 48 Geo Media: Sun Angle and Length of Day 48 Geo Media: Earth–Sun Geometry and Ancient Humans 48 Summary of Key Concepts 48 Check Your Understanding 48 4 The Global Energy System 50 The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Solar Energy 51 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 51 Solar Energy and the Solar Constant 52 Geo Media: The Electromagnetic Spectrum 53 Composition of the Atmosphere 53 Constant Gases 53 Variable Gases 54 Particulates 59 The Flow of Solar Radiation on Earth 60 Heat Transfer 60 Flow of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere 60 Interaction of Solar Radiation and the Earth’s Surface 63 Geo Media: The Angle of Incidence 64 The Global Radiation Budget 65 Geo Media: The Global Energy Budget 66 Human Interactions: Solar Energy Production 69 Summary of Key Concepts 72 Check Your Understanding 72 5 Global Temperature Patterns 73 Layered Structure of the Atmosphere 74 The Troposphere 74 The Stratosphere 75 The Mesosphere 76 The Thermosphere 76 Surface and Air Temperatures 77 Human Interactions: Calculating the Heat Index and Wind Chill 79 Large-Scale Geographic Factors That Influence Air Temperature 79 Local Factors That Influence Air Temperature 81 Geo Media: Surface Temperature 82 The Annual Range of Surface Temperature (A Holistic Assessment) 83 Geo Media: Maritime vs. Continental Effect 83 Geo Media: Global Temperature Patterns 85 Human Interactions: Urban Heat Islands 86 Geo Media: Temperature and Location 88 Summary of Key Concepts 88 Check Your Understanding 88 6 Atmospheric Pressure, Wind, and Global Circulation 90 Atmospheric Pressure 91 Factors That Influence Air Pressure 91 Measuring and Mapping Air Pressure 92 Atmospheric Pressure Systems 93 Low-Pressure Systems 93 High-Pressure Systems 94 The Direction of Airflow 95 Unequal Heating of Land Surfaces 95 Pressure Gradient Force 96 Geo Media: Fluctuations in the Pressure Gradient 97 Coriolis Force 97 Frictional Forces 98 Geo Media: The Coriolis Force 98 Global Pressure and Atmospheric Circulation 100 Tropical Circulation 102 Midlatitude Circulation 103 Geo Media: Global Atmospheric Circulation 106 Polar Circulation 106 Seasonal Migration of Pressure Systems 106 Geo Media: The Asian Monsoon 107 Human Interactions: Harnessing Wind Energy 108 Geo Media: Global Atmospheric Circulation and Water Vapor Movement 108 Local Wind Systems 111 Land–Sea Breezes 111 Topographic Winds 111 Oceanic Circulation 114 Gyres and Thermohaline Circulation 114 El Niño 115 Geo Media: El Niño 116 Summary of Key Concepts 118 Check Your Understanding 118 7 Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation 119 Physical Properties of Water 120 Hydrogen Bonding 120 Thermal Properties of Water and Its Physical States 121 Geo Media: Latent Heat 122 The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic Cycle 122 Humidity 124 Maximum, Specific, and Relative Humidity 124 Dew-Point Temperature 127 Geo Media: Atmospheric Humidity 129 Evaporation 129 Adiabatic Processes 130 The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate 131 Geo Media: Adiabatic Processes 132 The Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate 132 Cloud Formation and Classification 133 Cloud Classification 136 Fog 136 Precipitation 137 Types of Precipitation 137 Precipitation Processes 137 Geo Media: Orographic Processes 141 Geo Media: Convectional Precipitation 143 Human Interactions: Recent Droughts in the U.S. 144 Summary of Key Concepts 145 Check Your Understanding 146 8 Air Masses and Cyclonic Weather Systems 147 Air Masses and Fronts 148 Air Masses 148 Fronts 149 Evolution and Character of Midlatitude Cyclones 152 Upper Airflow and the 500-mb Pressure Surface 152 Interaction of Upper Airflow and Surface Airflow 153 Cyclogenesis 155 Geo Media: Formation of a Midlatitude Cyclone 157 Thunderstorms 157 Evolution of Thunderstorms 157 Geo Media: Migration of a Midlatitude Cyclone 157 Geo Media: Formation of Thunderstorms 159 Severe Thunderstorms 159 Tornadoes 161 Geo Media: Tornadoes 165 Tropical Cyclones 166 Hurricanes 166 Human Interactions: Coping with Destructive Hurricanes 168 Geo Media: Tracks of Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Sandy 169 Summary of Key Concepts 173 Check Your Understanding 173 9 Global Climates and Global Climate Change 174 Climate and the Factors That Affect It 175 Köppen Climate Classification 176 Geography of Köppen Climates 179 Tropical (A) Climates 180 Arid and Semi-Arid (B) Climates 180 Geo Media: Tropical Savanna Climate ( Aw) 181 Mesothermal (C) Climates 183 Microthermal (D) Climates 184 Geo Media: Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer Climate (Cfa, Cwa) 184 Geo Media: Marine West-Coast Climates (Cfb, Cfc) 185 Polar (E) Climates 186 Highland (H) Climates 187 Geo Media: Global Climates 187 Geo Media: Remote Sensing and Climate 187 Reconstructing Past Climates 188 Pollen Records 188 Tree Ring Patterns 190 Ice Core Analysis 190 Causes of Past Climate Change 193 Geo Media: Reconstructing Past Climates Using Oxygen Isotopes 194 Geo Media: The Milankovitch Theory 195 Human Interactions and Ongoing Climate Change 196 The Carbon Cycle 197 Is Anthropogenic Climate Change Really Occurring? 199 Predicting Future Climate Change 200 Geo Media: The Greenhouse Effect and Global Climate Change 201 Summary of Key Concepts 202 Check Your Understanding 203 10 Plant Geography 204 Ecosystems and Biogeography 205 The Process of Photosynthesis 206 Geo Media: Photosynthesis and Respiration 209 The Relationship of Climate and Vegetation: The Character and Distribution of Global Biomes 210 Forest Biomes 212 Grassland Biomes 215 Desert Biomes 217 Tundra Biome 218 Local and Regional Factors That Influence the Geographic Distribution of Vegetation 218 Slope and Aspect 218 Vertical Zonation 219 Plant Succession 220 Geo Media: Plant Succession 221 Riparian Zones 221 Human Interactions: Human Influence on Vegetation Patterns 222 Deforestation 222 Agriculture in the Midlatitude Grassland Biome 225 Geo Media: Deforestation 225 Overgrazing 226 Geo Media: Remote Sensing and the Biosphere 227 Summary of Key Concepts 227 Check Your Understanding 228 11 The Global Distribution and Character of Soils 229 What is Soil? 230 Basic Soil Properties 230 Soil-Forming (Pedogenic) Processes 232 Soil-Forming Factors 234 Measurable Soil Characteristics 238 Soil Chemistry 241 Soil pH 241 Colloids and Cation Exchange 241 Soil Profiles (Reading the Soil) 242 Geo Media: Soil Colloids and pH 242 Time and Soil Evolution 244 Soil Science and Classification 245 Geo Media: Soil Horizon Development 245 The Twelve Soil Orders 247 Geo Media: African Climate, Vegetation, and Soils 250 Geo Media: Regional Pedogenic Processes 256 Geo Media: North American Climate, Vegetation, and Soils 259 Human Interactions with Soils 260 Summary of Key Concepts 264 Check Your Understanding 264 12 Earth’s Internal Structure, Rock Cycle, and Geologic Time 265 Earth’s Inner Structure 266 The Major Layers 266 Rocks and Minerals in the Earth’s Crust 270 Igneous Rocks 271 Geo Media: Identification of Igneous Environments 272 Sedimentary Rocks 273 Geo Media: Clastic Rocks 277 The Rock Cycle 278 Geo Media: The Rock Cycle 280 Geologic Time 280 Geo Media: Geologic Time 282 “Telling” Geologic Time 282 Putting Geologic Time in Perspective 282 A Holistic View of Geologic Time and the Rock Cycle: The Grand Canyon and the Spanish Peaks of Colorado 283 Human Interactions with Geologic Time: The Anthropocene 286 Summary of Key Concepts 288 Check Your Understanding 288 13 Tectonic Processes and Landforms 289 Plate Tectonics 290 The Lithospheric Plates 290 Plate Movement 290 Geo Media: Continental Drift 293 Types of Plate Movements 294 Passive Margins 294 Transform Plate Margins 294 Plate Divergence 295 Plate Convergence 296 Geo Media: Folding 302 Geo Media: Plate Tectonics 302 Earthquakes 303 Seismic Processes 303 Human Interactions: Earthquakes as Natural Hazards 308 Geo Media: Types of Faults 313 Volcanoes 314 Explosive Volcanoes 314 Fluid Volcanoes 318 Hotspots 318 Geo Media: Walk the Pacific Ring of Fire 319 Geo Media: Volcanoes 322 Summary of Key Concepts 322 Check Your Understanding 322 14 Weathering and Mass Movement 324 Weathering 325 Mechanical Weathering 325 Chemical Weathering 328 Human Interactions: Acid Rain 330 Geo Media: Weathering 332 Mass Wasting 332 Rockfall 334 Soil Creep 334 Landslides 335 Flows 336 Avalanches 337 Geo Media: Weathering and Mass Movements 339 Summary of Key Concepts 339 Check Your Understanding 339 15 Groundwater and Karst Landscapes 340 Movement and Storage of Groundwater 341 Human Interactions with Groundwater 343 The High Plains Aquifer 343 Subsidence 347 Groundwater Contamination 348 Karst Landforms and Landscapes 349 Geo Media: Hydrologic Cycle and Groundwater 349 Caves and Caverns 350 Karst Topography 351 Summary of Key Concepts 353 Check Your Understanding 353 16 Fluvial Systems and Landforms 354 Overland Flow and Drainage Basins 355 Origin of Streams 355 Drainage Basins 356 Drainage Patterns, Density, and Stream Ordering 358 Geo Media: The Rhine River 360 Hydraulic Geometry and Channel Flow 361 Fluctuations in Stream Discharge 361 Fluvial Processes and Landforms 364 Erosion and Deposition 364 Stream Gradation 366 Geo Media: Bedload Transport and Braided Streams 367 Geo Media: The Graded Stream 369 Evolution of Stream Valleys and Floodplains 371 Geo Media: Stream Meandering 372 Geo Media: Fluvial Geomorphology and Stream Processes 373 Human Interactions with Streams 380 Urbanization 380 Artificial Levees 381 Dams and Reservoirs 382 Summary of Key Concepts 386 Check Your Understanding 386 17 Glacial Geomorphology: Processes and Landforms 387 Development of a Glacier 388 The Metamorphosis of Snow to Glacial Ice 388 The Glacial Mass Budget 389 Geo Media: The Glacial Mass Budget 390 Glacial Movement 390 Types of Glaciers 392 Glaciers in Mountainous Regions 392 Continental Glaciers 394 Geo Media: Glaciers in the Cascade Mountains 394 Glacial Landforms 396 Landforms Made by Glacial Erosion 396 Deposition of Glacial Drift and Resulting Landforms 399 History of Glaciation on Earth 403 Geo Media: Depositional Glacial Landforms 403 The Wisconsin Glaciation and Evolution of the Great Lakes 405 Probable Human Impact on Glaciers 406 Geo Media: Glaciers and Climate Change 408 Periglacial Processes and Landscapes 410 Permafrost 410 Ground Ice and Associated Landforms 411 Summary of Key Concepts 413 Check Your Understanding 413 18 Arid Landscapes and Eolian Processes 414 Arid Landscapes 415 Desert Geomorphology 416 Eolian Erosion and Transport 420 The Fluid Behavior of Wind, Erosion, and Sediment Transport 420 Eolian Deposition and Landforms 422 Airflow and the Formation of Sand Dunes 423 Classification of Sand Dunes and Related Landforms 425 Deposition of Windblown Dust 428 Geo Media: Eolian Processes and Landforms 429 Human Interactions with Arid Landscapes and Eolian Processes 431 Desertification in the African Sahel 431 Desertification in the Great Plains of the United States: The Dust Bowl 433 Summary of Key Concepts 435 Check Your Understanding 435 19 Coastal Processes and Landforms 437 Oceans and Seas on Earth 438 The Nature of Coastlines: Intersection of Earth’s Spheres 439 Processes That Shape the Coastline 439 Geo Media: Tides 445 Coastal Landforms 446 Erosional Coastlines 446 Geo Media: Waves and Coastal Erosion 450 Depositional Coastlines 450 Geo Media: Longshore Processes and Depositional Coastlines 456 Human Interactions with Coastlines 458 Coastal Engineering 458 Global Climate Change and the Impact on Coastlines 461 Geo Media: Evolution of the Louisiana Coastline 462 Summary of Key Concepts 463 Check Your Understanding 463 20 Relevance of Physical Geography to Environmental Issues 465 A Short History of Human Population 466 Technological Development and Population Growth 466 The Impact of Growing Human Population on the Natural Environment 467 Case 1: Water Issues in the Arid American Southwest 469 Establishing Water Rights 470 Will Water Supplies Disappear? 471 A Drought-Prone Future? 473 Case 2: Soil Salinization in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands 475 Ancient Sumeria 477 The Current Global Extent of Salinization 478 The San Joaquin Valley in California 478 Australia 481 The Challenge of Sustainable Agriculture in Semi-Arid and Arid Regions 483 Case 3: Developing Unconventional Oil Supplies in North America 485 Oil Supply, Demand, and Geography 485 Developing Unconventional Sources of Oil 487 Potential Environmental Consequences 488 Case 4: Giant Panda Conservation in China 490 The Wolong Nature Reserve 494 Case Summary 496 Summary of Key Concepts 496 Check Your Understanding 497 Glossary 498 Index 509