Natural Surfactants

Comprehensive guide to the fundamentals and growing range of commercial applications of natural surfactants Natural Surfactants: Science, Technology, and Industrial Aspects discusses the origin, production, physico-chemical properties, major producers, status, and opportunities of natural surfactants from macro- and microorganisms. The book presents the latest research in the field of natural surfactants, reviewing their advantages, current and future applications based on structure-performance relationships, and commercial uses in diverse industries including vaccines, food emulsifiers, feed additives, personal care formulations, pharmaceuticals, crop protection formulations, soil remediation and microbial enhanced oil recovery. The book contains introductory sections on each of the major classes of natural surfactants with each section broken down into subchapters discussing their biochemical and commercial features. It has a chapter on the analytical techniques used for the characterisation of natural surfactants and their producing microorganisms. It closes with a chapter on future perspectives, discussing hurdles and opportunities for natural surfactants. Authored by experts in the field of surfactant science with experience in both academic research and industrial practices, Natural Surfactants includes information on: The chemical structure and the physicochemical properties The biological activity The production process, including, as appropriate, extraction or fermentation strategies and conditions, microorganism strains, medium composition, and purification techniques The economics of production for the major classes A comprehensive review of the existing industrial uses and of the potential new applications as it can be inferred from the match of physicochemical properties and market demands. Natural Surfactants contains essential knowledge on the subject for academic researchers and industry practitioners working in the field of surfactant science. The text is also valuable for universities, research institutes, and regional and multinational companies active in surfactants production and/or in their formulation.

Preface xi Acronyms xv 1 General Views on Natural Surfactants 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Surfactants from Nature 2 1.3 Natural Surfactants Versus Bio-Based Surfactants 4 1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Naturally Occurring Surfactants 8 1.5 Production Process of Natural Surfactants 9 1.5.1 Selection of the Microorganism 11 1.5.2 Medium Composition 11 1.5.3 Feeding Strategies 13 1.5.3.1 Pulse Feed 13 1.5.3.2 Constant Feed Rate 13 1.5.3.3 Exponential Feed Rate 13 1.5.3.4 Feedback Control Feed Rate 14 1.5.4 Biosurfactants Transport 15 1.5.5 Recovery and Purification 15 1.6 Raw Materials in Natural Surfactants Production 16 1.7 Life Cycle Analysis of Natural Surfactants 17 1.8 Production Costs of Naturally Occurring Surfactants 18 1.9 Natural Surfactants are Chiral 19 1.10 A Glimpse into the Future 20 References 24 2 Saponins 29 2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 31 2.3 Biological Activity 36 2.3.1 Antibacterial Activity 36 2.3.2 Antiviral Activity 36 2.3.3 Antifungal Activity 36 2.3.4 Antiparasitic Activity 36 2.3.5 Antiinflammatory Activity 36 2.3.6 Antitumor Activity 37 2.3.7 Hepatoprotective Activity 37 2.3.8 Immunoadjuvant Activity 37 2.4 Sources of Commercial Saponins 38 2.5 Extraction and Purification 41 2.6 Toxicology 44 2.6.1 Acute Toxicity 44 2.6.2 Long-Term Toxicity in Mice 44 2.6.3 Short-Term Toxicity in Rats 46 2.6.4 Long-Term Toxicity in Rats 46 2.7 Producers and Vendors 46 2.8 Products and Prices 49 2.9 Existing Applications 49 2.10 Potential Applications 52 2.11 Regulatory 55 2.11.1 Saponins in Pharmacopoeias 55 2.11.2 Saponins in Food and Cosmetics Regulatory 55 References 56 3 Phospholipids 63 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Chemical Structure and Properties of Lecithin 66 3.3 Production 68 3.4 Producers and Prices 70 3.5 Existing Applications 73 3.5.1 Liposomes for Delivery of Bioactive Substances 73 3.5.2 Lecithin in Food, Feed, and Nutrition 75 3.5.3 Lecithin in Personal Care Formulations 76 3.5.4 Lecithin in Other Industrial Areas 76 3.6 Regulatory 77 References 78 4 Bile Acids 81 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 81 4.3 Producers 82 4.4 Applications 82 References 83 5 Rhamnolipids 85 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 85 5.3 Biosynthesis 90 5.4 Biotechnological Production 91 5.4.1 Choosing the Bacteria 91 5.4.2 Fermentation Conditions 92 5.4.2.1 Medium Composition 93 5.4.2.2 Fermentation Parameters 94 5.4.2.3 Extraction and Purification 94 5.4.3 Reducing Raw Material Costs 95 5.4.3.1 Waste Cooking Oils (WCO) 95 5.4.3.2 Other Sources 96 5.4.4 Overcoming Pathogenicity 97 5.5 Rhamnolipids Through Organic Synthesis 98 5.6 Rhamnolipids Through Bioorganic Synthesis 100 5.7 Biodegradability, Toxicity, and Antimicrobial Effect 101 5.8 Suppliers, Formulators, Products, and Prices 102 5.9 Existing Applications 104 5.10 Potential Applications 105 5.11 Regulatory 107 References 107 6 Sophorolipids 117 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 117 6.3 Biosynthesis 123 6.4 Production 125 6.5 Production Costs 128 6.6 Biodegradability and Toxicity 129 6.7 Suppliers, Formulators, Products, and Prices 129 6.8 Existing Applications 134 6.8.1 Cosmetics 134 6.8.2 Household Cleaning 134 6.8.3 Source of Chemicals 135 6.9 Potential Applications 135 6.10 Regulatory 136 References 137 7 Mannosylerythritol Lipids 141 7.1 Introduction 141 7.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 141 7.3 Production 145 7.4 Producers 148 7.5 Existing and Potential Applications 148 7.5.1 Cosmetics 148 7.5.2 Disinfection 149 7.5.3 Crop Protection 150 References 151 8 Trehalose Lipids 153 8.1 Introduction 153 8.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 153 8.3 Production 158 8.4 Skin Toxicity 159 8.5 Existing Applications 159 8.6 Potential Applications 160 References 161 9 Cellobiose Lipids 163 9.1 Introduction 163 9.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 163 9.3 Production 165 9.4 Potential Applications 165 References 166 10 Xylolipids 167 10.1 Introduction 167 10.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 167 10.3 Producers 168 10.4 Potential Applications 169 References 169 11 Lipopeptides 171 11.1 Introduction 171 11.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 172 11.3 Biosynthesis 173 11.4 Production 174 11.5 Production Costs 174 11.6 Toxicology, Environmental Properties 175 11.7 Suppliers and Products 176 11.8 Existing and Potential Applications 177 11.9 Regulatory 177 References 177 12 Antimicrobial Peptides 181 12.1 Introduction 181 12.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 182 12.3 Sources 184 12.4 Production 185 12.5 Mechanism of Action 187 12.5.1 Extracellular Via Membrane Targeting Mode 187 12.5.2 Intracellular Mode 190 12.5.2.1 Inhibition of Protein Biosynthesis 190 12.5.2.2 Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Biosynthesis 190 12.5.2.3 Inhibition of Protease Activity 190 12.5.2.4 Inhibition of Cell Division 190 12.6 Existing and Potential Applications 191 12.6.1 Medicine 191 12.6.1.1 Wound Healing and Skin Infections 191 12.6.1.2 Dental Care 192 12.6.1.3 Ophthalmology 192 12.6.1.4 Antibacterial Peptides 192 12.6.1.5 Antifungal Peptides 192 12.6.1.6 Anticancer Peptides 192 12.6.1.7 Antiviral Peptides 192 12.6.1.8 Antiparasitic Peptides 193 12.6.1.9 Anti-HIV Peptides 193 12.6.1.10 Endogenous Antimicrobial Peptides 193 12.6.1.11 Biofilm Inhibitors 193 12.6.2 Medical Devices 193 12.6.3 Pharmaceutical Industry 194 12.6.3.1 Therapeutic Antimicrobial Peptides on the Market 194 12.6.3.2 Nanoparticle Formulations of Antimicrobial Peptides 195 12.6.4 Food 196 12.6.5 Animal Husbandry and Aquaculture 196 12.6.6 Agriculture 196 12.7 Producers 196 References 198 13 Lipopolysaccharides 207 13.1 Introduction 207 13.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 209 13.3 The Emulsan Story 211 13.4 Other Lipopolysaccharides 214 References 215 14 Characterization of Natural Surfactants 219 14.1 Introduction 219 14.2 Methods for the Characterization of Naturally Occurring Surfactants 221 14.3 Methods to Determine the Self-Assembly Behavior of Naturally Occurring Surfactants 230 14.4 Methods to Determine Phase Diagrams of Naturally Occurring Surfactants 231 14.5 Methods for Strain Identification 233 14.6 Methods to Identify the Biosynthesis Pathway of Surface-Active Compounds 234 References 235 15 Distinctive Features of Low- and High-Molecular-Weight Amphiphiles 241 15.1 Introduction 241 15.2 Emulsions 242 15.3 Natural Amphiphiles as Emulsifiers and Emulsion Stabilizers 245 15.3.1 Phospholipids 246 15.3.2 Saponins 247 15.3.3 Glycolipids 248 15.3.4 Lipopeptides 248 15.3.5 Surface-Active Proteins 248 15.3.6 Lipopolysaccharides 250 References 251 16 Commercial Exploitation of Natural Surface-Active Agents 255 Foreword 255 16.1 Introduction 255 16.2 Home Care 256 16.2.1 Household Laundry Detergents 256 16.2.2 Hand Dishwashing Cleaners 258 16.2.3 Hard Surface Cleaners 258 16.3 Cosmetics 258 16.4 Plant Protection 260 16.5 Food 262 16.6 Oil Industry 264 16.6.1 General 264 16.6.2 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery 264 References 269 Index 273