Green Engineering and Sustainable Technology

Secure your place at the forefront of the green revolution with this authoritative, expert-led guide to the latest innovations in green solvents, energy storage, and sustainable processes to transform industrial efficiency. Modern sustainable development revolves around green engineering for designing processes and technologies that minimize environmental impact while maximizing efficiency. This book is an authoritative resource that presents the latest sustainable engineering innovations on materials, processes, and methods that reduce environmental consequences. It provides a holistic account of advances in sustainable engineering, delving into tools and techniques driving sustainable engineering. It demonstrates how we can minimize environmental impacts from industry by enhancing industrial efficacy. The book highlights green solvents such as deep eutectic solvents and ionic liquids, which have significance across energy storage, electrochemistry, and subsequent extraction, that emphasize sustainable fermentation, nano-emulsions, glycan separation, and green electrolytes for energy storage. Whether you are designing green infrastructure, designing energy-efficient products, or are involved in battery technologies, this essential guide provides several necessary tools and insights to catalyze inspiration and innovation to develop a cleaner and more sustainable future. Readers will find the volume: Bridges the gap between green engineering concepts and practical applications, providing insights into how green principles are developed into sustainable technology; Focuses on green engineering practices that provide innovative solutions to existing problems and leading to new processes and products that uphold sustainability; Delves into groundbreaking developments in environmentally and economically advantageous sustainable technology. Audience Sustainability, chemical and civil engineers, environmental researchers, biotechnologists, environmental scientists who think beyond conventional practices and seek technologically advanced solutions to sustainability.

Preface xv 1 Introduction to Green Engineering: Principles, Approach, Applications, and Sustainability 1 Neela Gayathri Ganesan, Rami A. Abdel-Rahem, Vivek Rangarajan, Sivalingam Ramesh, Cédric Delattre and K. Senthilkumar 1.1 Definition of Green Engineering 2 1.2 Definition of Circular Economy 11 1.2.1 Linear vs. Circular Economies: Key Principles and Implications 12 1.2.2 Historical Development and Global Adoption of CE 15 1.3 Key Principles of the Circular Economy 16 1.3.1 Design Out Waste and Pollution 16 1.3.2 Keep Products and Materials in Use 16 1.3.3 Regenerate Natural Systems 17 1.4 Circular Economy as Critical Factor of Green Engineering 17 1.5 Circular Economy and Green Engineering Case Studies 19 1.6 Prospects and Challenges in Synergy between Circular Economy and Green Engineering 23 1.6.1 Prospects of the Synergy 23 1.6.2 Challenges in Synergy 25 1.7 Emerging Scope of Green Engineering and Circular Economy 25 1.7.1 Scope of Green Engineering in Biotechnology 26 1.7.2 Scope of Green Engineering in Industries 26 1.7.3 Scope of Green Engineering in AI and IoT 27 1.8 Explicit Socio-Economic Contributions of Green Engineering 28 1.8.1 Industrial Application 28 1.8.2 Urban Development 29 1.8.3 Product Design 32 1.8.4 Sustainability in Resource Management 33 1.9 Expected Impacts and Possible Outcomes of Implementing Green Engineering 34 1.10 Conclusion 36 References 38 2 Green Metrics 45 Gracia Saral Gladison, Ramya Muniasamy and Senthilkumar Rathnasamy 2.1 Introduction to Green Chemistry—Demand and Scope 45 2.2 Green Metrics—Pillars of Green Chemistry 47 2.2.1 Atom Economy and Reaction Mass Efficiency 49 2.2.1.1 The Atom Economy’s Significance 49 2.2.1.2 Atom Economy Examples 50 2.2.1.3 Significance of Reaction Mass Efficiency 51 2.2.1.4 Examples of RME 52 2.2.2 Process Mass Intensity and E-Factor 52 2.2.3 Eco-Scale and Waste Reduction Algorithm 55 2.2.3.1 Reduction of Waste Algorithm 56 2.2.4 Case Studies—Role of Green Metrics in Industrial Sustainability 57 2.3 Sustainable Development Goals—Foundations of Green Society 58 2.3.1 Prospects and Challenges of SDGs 61 2.3.1.1 Prospects of SDGs 61 2.3.1.2 Challenges of SDGs 62 2.3.2 Economic Aspects of SDGs 62 2.3.2.1 Challenges in Green Chemistry from an Economic Perspective 63 2.3.3 Societal Reforms Mandating SDGs 64 2.3.4 SDGs in Perspective—Lessons from Previous Executors 66 References 67 3 Green Solvents: Fundamentals and Applications 71 Sinchan Hait, Arshitha Mathew, Anushka Sharma, Akshita Jain and Upasana Mahanta 3.1 Introduction 72 3.2 Ionic Liquids (ILs) 73 3.2.1 Properties of Ionic Liquids 75 3.2.1.1 Low Melting Point 75 3.2.1.2 High Thermal Stability 75 3.2.1.3 Low Vapor Pressure 75 3.2.1.4 Non-Flammability 75 3.2.1.5 Solubility and Miscibility 75 3.2.1.6 Electrical Conductivity 75 3.2.1.7 Chemical Stability 76 3.2.2 Applications of Ionic Liquids 76 3.2.2.1 Electrochemical Applications 76 3.2.2.2 Gas Absorption 77 3.2.2.3 Drug Delivery 78 3.2.2.4 Catalysis 78 3.3 Deep Eutectic Solvents (DESs) 81 3.3.1 Types of Deep Eutectic Solvents 81 3.3.1.1 Type I: (Salt + Metal Compound) 81 3.3.1.2 Type II: (Salt + Metal Compound + Water) 82 3.3.1.3 Type III: (Salt + Organic Molecule) 83 3.3.1.4 Type IV: (Salt + Organic Molecule + Metal Compound) 83 3.3.1.5 Type V: (Organic Molecule + Organic Molecule) 83 3.3.2 Properties of Deep Eutectic Solvents 83 3.3.2.1 Melting Point 83 3.3.2.2 Density and Viscosity 83 3.3.2.3 Ionic Charge 83 3.3.2.4 Ionic Conductivity 84 3.3.3 Preparation of Deep Eutectic Solvents 84 3.3.4 Applications of Deep Eutectic Solvents 85 3.3.4.1 Deep Eutectic Solvents for CO 2 Capture 85 3.3.4.2 Co 2 Capture Mechanism 87 3.3.5 Green Credentials 92 3.4 Terpenes and Their DES Derivatives 92 3.4.1 Characteristics of Terpene-Based DESs 94 3.4.1.1 Viscosity 94 3.4.1.2 Density 95 3.4.1.3 Refractive Index 95 3.4.1.4 Surface Tension and Contact Angle 95 3.4.1.5 Thermal Property 96 3.4.2 Terpene-Based DESs’ Applications 96 3.5 Some Other Green Solvents 97 3.5.1 Non-Toxic Liquid Polymers 97 3.5.2 Supercritical Fluids 97 3.5.3 Common Industrial Applications 98 3.6 Conclusion 98 References 99 4 Intensification Strategies in Green Engineering 103 Hanisha R., Dhanashree T.D., Sangeetha Priya R.B., Subanu M. and Gopinath M. 4.1 Introduction 104 4.2 Process Intensification in Green Engineering 105 4.3 Importance of Green Engineering Benefits 106 4.3.1 Reduced Environmental Impact 106 4.3.2 Enhanced Process Efficiency 107 4.3.3 Economic and Societal Benefits 107 4.4 Examples of Process Intensification Techniques 108 4.4.1 Microreactors 108 4.4.2 Ultrasonic Processing 109 4.4.3 Microwave Heating 109 4.5 Frequently Employed Sustainable Extraction Techniques 110 4.5.1 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 110 4.5.1.1 Microwave-Assisted Extraction Principle 110 4.5.1.2 Applications of MAE 111 4.5.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 112 4.5.2.1 Mechanism of Ultrasonic Technology 112 4.5.2.2 Applications of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 113 4.5.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 114 4.5.3.1 Mechanism of Supercritical Fluid Extraction 114 4.5.3.2 Principle of Supercritical Fluid Extraction (sfe) 115 4.5.3.3 Application and Benefits of Supercritical Fluid Extraction 115 4.5.4 Plasma-Assisted Extraction 115 4.5.4.1 Principle of Plasma Technology 116 4.5.4.2 Mechanism of Plasma-Assisted Green Engineering Extraction (PAE) 117 4.5.4.3 Applications and Benefits of PAE 117 4.6 Comparative Analysis of Extraction Methods 118 4.6.1 Comparison of Extraction Mechanism 118 4.6.1.1 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 118 4.6.1.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 118 4.6.1.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 119 4.6.1.4 Plasma-Assisted Extraction 119 4.6.2 Yield Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness of Extraction Methods 119 4.6.2.1 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) 119 4.6.2.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) 120 4.6.2.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 120 4.6.2.4 Plasma-Assisted Extraction (PAE) 121 4.7 Integration of Multiple Extraction Techniques 121 4.7.1 Hybrid Extraction Methods 121 4.7.2 Synergistic Effects and Benefits 122 4.8 Challenges and Limitations 122 4.8.1 Technical Challenges 122 4.8.2 Economic and Regulatory Issues 123 4.9 Potential Solutions and Future Directions 124 4.9.1 Recent Innovations in Green Extraction Techniques 125 4.9.2 Case Studies and Real-World Applications 127 4.10 Conclusion 128 References 129 5 Green Nanoemulsions for Sustainable Applications 135 Ashwini Padole, Sreelakshmi K.P., Utpal Roy and Vivek Rangarajan 5.1 Introduction 136 5.2 Fundamentals of Nanoemulsions 137 5.2.1 Composition and Types 137 5.2.1.1 W/O Nanoemulsions 137 5.2.1.2 O/W Nanoemulsions 137 5.2.1.3 Bi-Continuous Nanoemulsions 137 5.2.1.4 Size and Stability 138 5.2.1.5 Optical Properties 138 5.3 Benefits, Drawbacks and Key Attributes of Nanoemulsions 138 5.4 Challenges and Limitations of Nanoemulsions 139 5.4.1 High Cost of Formulation 139 5.4.2 Environmental Sensitivity 139 5.4.3 Limited Research 140 5.4.4 Understanding of Interfacial Chemistry 140 5.5 Synthesis and Characterization of Nanoemulsions 140 5.5.1 Selection of Components 140 5.5.2 Formulation and Preparation Method of Nanoemulsions 142 5.5.2.1 High-Energy Emulsification Method 142 5.5.2.2 High-Pressure Homogenization (HPH) 142 5.5.2.3 Microfluidization 142 5.5.2.4 Sonication 142 5.5.2.5 Low-Energy Emulsification Method 143 5.5.2.6 Spontaneous Methods 143 5.5.2.7 Phase Inversion Method 143 5.6 Characterization of Nanoemulsion 144 5.6.1 Particle Size and Distribution 144 5.6.1.1 Size Distribution 144 5.6.1.2 Measurement Techniques 144 5.6.2 Zeta Potential 145 5.6.3 Viscosity and Rheology 145 5.6.4 Stability Studies 145 5.6.4.1 Accelerated Stability Testing 145 5.6.4.2 Thermal Stability 146 5.6.5 The Characteristics of Optics 146 5.6.6 Turbidimetry 146 5.6.7 Encapsulation Efficiency 146 5.6.7.1 Chromatographic Methods (HPLC and GC) 146 5.6.7.2 Spectroscopic Methods (Ultraviolet–Visible Spectroscopy (UV-Vis) and FTIR) 147 5.6.7.3 pH and Conductivity Measurements 147 5.6.8 In Vitro Permeation and Bioavailability Studies 147 5.6.8.1 In Vitro Release Studies 147 5.6.8.2 Cell Culture Studies 148 5.7 Nanoemulsion for Stable Green Cosmetics 148 5.8 Green Nanoemulsions 148 5.9 Principles of Green Nanoemulsions 149 5.9.1 Use of Renewable Resources 149 5.9.2 Safer Solvents 150 5.9.3 Energy Efficiency 150 5.9.4 Design for Degradation 150 5.10 Formulation of Green Nanoemulsions 150 5.10.1 Oils, Both Plant-Based and Natural 150 5.10.2 Bio-Based or Natural Surfactants 151 5.10.3 Eco-Friendly/Green Solvents 151 5.11 Applications 151 5.12 Case Studies on Green Nanoemulsions 153 5.12.1 Single Surfactant-Based Nanoemulsion System 153 5.12.2 Two/Three Biosurfactant Systems: Improved Stability Mechanisms 153 5.13 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 154 Bibliography 154 6 Cutting-Edge Eco-Conscious Technologies for Glycan Separation 161 M. Aniskumar, C. Santhaseelan, K. Keerthiga, G. Jeyashree and M. A. Sundaramahalingam 6.1 Introduction 162 6.2 Fundamentals of Glycan Separation 163 6.2.1 Types of Glycans 163 6.2.2 Glycan Structure 164 6.2.3 Glycan Separation Techniques 165 6.3 Principles of Green Technologies in Glycan Separation 167 6.4 Green Solvent and Solvent-Free Techniques 175 6.4.1 Green Solvent Techniques 175 6.4.1.1 Ionic Liquids 175 6.4.1.2 Deep Eutectic Solvents 175 6.4.2 Solvent-Free Extraction Method 176 6.4.3 Industrial Applications of Green Solvent Techniques 176 6.5 Membrane Technologies for Glycan Separation 177 6.5.1 Membrane Filtration and Ultrafiltration 177 6.5.2 Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis 178 6.5.3 Green Membrane Materials and Applications 178 6.6 Adsorption and Chromatographic Methods 179 6.6.1 Green Adsorbents 179 6.6.2 Green Stationary Phases 180 6.6.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 180 6.6.4 Thin-Layer Chromatography 180 6.6.5 Capillary Electrophoresis 181 6.7 Biocatalytic and Enzymatic Approaches 181 6.7.1 Enzyme-Based Glycan Modification and Separation 181 6.7.2 Biocatalytic Processes for Eco-Conscious Glycan Purification 182 6.7.3 Advances and Applications in Biotechnology 183 6.8 Electrochemical and Electrophoretic Techniques 183 6.8.1 Electrochemical Glycan Separation Principles 184 6.8.2 Electrophoretic Methods for Green Glycan Analysis 184 6.8.3 Emerging Technologies and Future Directions 185 6.9 Integrated Green Technologies 186 6.9.1 Hybrid and Integrated Approaches to Glycan Separation 186 6.9.2 Synergistic Effects of Combined Green Techniques 187 6.10 Future Trends and Prospects 187 6.11 Conclusion 189 References 190 7 Sustainable Fermentation 195 Shobika S. and Vijayakumar L. 7.1 Introduction 196 7.2 Organic Acids 198 7.2.1 Lactic Acid (LA) 198 7.2.2 Citric Acid (CA) 199 7.2.3 Glucaric Acid (GA) 199 7.3 Enzymes 200 7.3.1 Amylases 200 7.3.2 Proteases 201 7.4 Secondary Metabolites 202 7.4.1 Penicillin 202 7.4.2 Griseofulvin 203 7.5 Pigments 203 7.5.1 Carotenoid 203 7.5.2 Anthocyanins 204 7.6 Fragrance Compounds 205 7.6.1 Vanillin 205 7.6.2 Limonene 206 7.7 Comparative Analysis and Sustainability 206 7.8 Conclusion 209 References 210 8 Green Electrolytes 215 Lavanya Priyadarshini Ramalingam, Senthilkumar Rathnasamy, Balasubramanian Ramalingam and Parkavi Kathirvelu 8.1 Introduction 215 8.1.1 Electrolyte and Its Types 218 8.1.2 The Evolution of Green Electrolytes 219 8.2 Physicochemical and Electrochemical Behavior of DESs 222 8.2.1 Ionic Conductivity 222 8.2.2 Ion Transport 223 8.2.3 Wide Electrochemical Window 224 8.2.4 Low Volatility and Non-Flammability 224 8.2.5 Thermal and Chemical Stability 225 8.2.6 Biodegradability and Biocompatability 226 8.2.7 Tunability 226 8.2.8 Viscosity 227 8.2.9 Density 230 8.3 Advantage of DES as Electrolytes 230 8.3.1 Computational Validation of DES Battery Electrolytes 231 8.3.2 Role of DES in Batteries and Supercapacitors 234 8.3.3 Key Electrical Properties of DES-Based Electrolytes 234 8.4 DES-Based Eutectogels in Energy Storage 238 8.5 Challenges and Future Prospects 240 8.6 Conclusion 240 References 241 9 Life Cycle Assessment—A Systemic Tool in Sustainability Management 249 Jayita Chopra 9.1 Introduction 250 9.2 Types of LCA 252 9.3 Application of LCA in Green Processes 253 9.4 Stages of LCA 254 9.5 Methodologies 257 9.6 Allocation 258 9.7 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis 258 9.8 Case Study on LCA 259 9.9 Limitations and the Way Forward 260 9.10 Conclusion 261 References 261 10 Techno-Economic Analysis Perspective of Green Engineering 265 Harishbabu Balaraman, Karishma Chandrasekaran and Senthilkumar Rathnasamy 10.1 Introduction 265 10.2 Economic Aspects of Biorefinery 267 10.2.1 Economic Assessment of First-Generation Biorefinery 267 10.2.2 Economic Assessment of Second Generation Biorefinery 269 10.2.3 Economic Assessment of Third-Generation Biorefinery 271 10.2.4 Role of Green Solvents in Economic Perspective of Biorefinery 273 10.3 Economic Aspects of Bioactive Extraction 274 10.3.1 Economic Perspective in Microwave-Based Extraction 275 10.3.2 Economic Aspects of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 277 10.3.3 Economic Aspects of Supercritical Fluid Extraction 278 10.4 Conclusion 280 References 281 11 Conclusion and Future Trends in Sustainability 285 Dhandapani Ramesh, Gracia Saral Gladison and Senthilkumar Rathnasamy References 289 Index 291