An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience

An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience provides fundamental training in geoscience as developed through the lens of its forensic applications. It incorporates a range of topics including geophysical methods of grave detection, the mineralogy of art, identification of microfossils, and comparison of soil trace evidence samples. Each topic is introduced using core concepts that are developed with increasing complexity in order to give readers an understanding of the underlying scientific principles involved and a taste of the wide range of possible forensic uses. A variety of detailed reference tables have been compiled for the text and each chapter contains lists of references to applicable textbooks and journal articles. Examples of real criminal cases are also presented in each chapter to make the connections between theory and real world application. The goal of this book is to give readers a familiarity with the wide range of ways in which geoscience principles and geological materials can be utilized forensically. Additional resources for this book can be found at: http://www.wiley.com/go/bergslien/forensicgeoscience.

List of Tables and Figures vii  List of Color Plates xxv  List of Cases xxviii  Preface xxx  Acknowledgments xxxii  1 A Brief History of Forensic Science and Crime Scene Basics1 Scene of the Crime 14  Processing the Crime Scene 16  Types of Evidence 20  Further Reading 22  References 23  2 Minerals: The Basic Building Blocks of Geology24 Mineralogical Fraud 24  Minerals 29  Types of Bonding 34  Mineral Groups 43  Properties of Minerals 46  Summary 62  Further Reading 62  References 62  3 Rocks: Storybooks of the Earth63 The Rock Cycle 65  Properties of Rocks 67  Igneous Rocks 69  Sedimentary Rocks 78  Metamorphic Rocks 93  Summary 102  Further Reading 102  References 102  4 Maps: Getting a Sense of Place103 Global Location Systems 104  Maps in the United Kingdom 115  The Global Positioning System 115  Maps 117  Remote Sensing and Other Resources 127  Summary 130  Further Reading 130  References 131  5 Sand: To See the World in a Grain of Sand132 An Introduction to Sand 137  Characterizing Sand 139  Surface Features 152  Sample Collection 155  Sample Preparation 156  The Stereomicroscope 157  Forensic Examination of Sand 157  Common Minerals 159  Less Common Minerals 160  Opaque Minerals 160  Anthropogenic Materials 160  Summary 163  Further Reading 165  References 166  6 Gems and Gemstones: Those Most Precious of all Minerals168 An Introduction to Gemstones 170  Crystal Forms 171  The Petrographic Microscope 175  Light and the Optical Properties of Minerals 177  The Forensic Identification of Glass 182  More Optical Properties 187  Isotropic versus Anisotropic Minerals 191  Anisotropic Crystals 193  Other Important Properties of Gems and Gemstones 201  Identifying Gems and Gemstones 202  Organic Gemstones 216  Summary 218  Further Reading 218  References 218  7 Soil: Getting the Dirt on Crime220 Introduction to Soils 223  Soil Horizons 223  Soil Origins 225  Phyllosilicates (Sheet Silicates) 227  Some Important Clay Minerals 231  Soil Classification 237  Soil Color 237  Soil Moisture 242  Particle Size 243  Sample Collection 245  Simplified Manual Dry Sieve Method for Particle Size Analysis 246  Soil Classification Schemes 249  Soil Survey Maps 251  USDA Textural Classification 252  The ASTM Unified Soil Classification System (USCS): D-2487 253  Scene Examination 256  Visual Examination of Soil Evidence 256  Examination Procedures for Soil Samples 257  An Introduction to X-ray Diffraction Spectrometry (XRD) 264  Interpreting a Diffraction Pattern 272  Summary 279  Further Reading 279  References 279  8 The Geology of Art281 Geologic Media and Art Forgery 285  Mineral Pigments 287  Black Pigments 289  White Pigments 290  Earth Colors: Red Yellow Orange and Brown Pigments 295  Blue Pigments 298  Green Pigments 302  Collecting a Sample for Microscopic Examination (McCrone 1982) 305  Raman Spectroscopy 307  Chromatography 312  Inks 314  Summary 314  Further Reading 314  References 315  9 Fossils and Microfossils: Traces of Life317 Geologic Time and Index Fossils 317  An Introduction to Fossils 322  A Brief Introduction to the Classification of Fossils 329  Invertebrate Paleontology 332  Micropaleontology 354  Collection and Treatment 358  Scanning Electron Microscope 368  Is It Legal to Take This Fossil? 378  Rare-earth Elements 379  Summary 379  References 380  10 Geology and People: Forensic Anthropology and Forensic Archeology383 Locating Ground Disturbances 384  Search 385  Geophysical Tools 390  Magnetometry 390  Electrical Resistivity (ER) 400  Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) 408  Specialized EMI: Metal Detectors 411  Ground-penetrating Radar (GPR) 412  Search and Post-search Operations 423  Elemental and Mineralogical Analysis of Human Bone 424  Summary 428  Further Reading 428  References 428  11 Environmental Forensics: Tracking Pollution to its Source431 Water: Our Most Precious Natural Resource 433  Surface Water 434  Clean Water Act 436  CERCLA and SARA 440  Groundwater 440  Contaminant Hydrogeology 448  Safe Drinking Water Act 450  Water-quality Measurements 450  Field Water-quality Measurements 452  Water Contamination 455  Analytical Techniques for Chemical Fingerprinting 462  Isotopes in the Environment 463  Summary 470  References 471  Index 472