VCSEL Industry

A hands-on reference to the technical, commercial, and industrial aspects of VCSEL technology In VCSEL Industry: Communication and Sensing, a team of distinguished researchers and manufacturing professionals deliver a thorough and practical reference guide to vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) for young entrepreneurs, investors, venture capitalists, and researchers. The authors offer comprehensive descriptions of the technology involved, as well as a robust exploration of the industry and commercial landscape in which VCSELs exist. The book contains numerous illustrations and schematics of the anatomy of VCSEL product developments and an insightful discussion of the proliferation of VCSELs in photonics and optics. There is also a dedicated section on photoreceivers used for VCSEL-based data communications and sensing. VCSEL Industry: Communication and Sensing provides readers with an accessible, commercial perspective of an important technology while offering just enough technical detail to make sense of the subject. The book also includes: A thorough introduction to VCSELs, including discussions of semiconductor lasers, materials, wavelengths, and why VCSELs are attractive for photonics applications Comprehensive explorations of the VCSEL industry, including market demands, an industry landscape, descriptions of commercial products based on VCSELs, and business models Practical discussions of VCSELs for data communication, including high-speed VCSELs, gain and parasitic effects on bandwidth and speed, and form factors and standards In-depth examinations of VCSEL arrays for sensing, including high-power VCSELs in consumer electronics Perfect for early-career researchers, engineers, entrepreneurs, investors, and managers, VCSEL Industry: Communication and Sensing will also prove to be an invaluable addition to the libraries of executives from across the semiconductor industry.

About the Book and Authors Biographies xv Foreword xvii Preface xix Introduction xxi Acknowledgments xxiii List of Image Contributions xxv 1 Semiconductor Lasers and VCSEL History 1 Kenichi Iga 1.1 History and Basics of Semiconductor Lasers 1 1.2 Semiconductor Lasers and Manufacturing 9 1.3 VCSEL History and Development 11 1.4 Timeline and Milestones 15 1.5 State of VCSEL Development 21 2 VCSEL Fundamentals 29 Jim Tatum 2.1 Introduction to Lasers 29 2.2 Basic VCSEL Structure 29\ 2.3 Quantum Well Gain Region (Active Region) 30 2.4 Distributed Bragg Reflector Mirrors 30 2.5 Light Output Characteristic 33 2.6 Forward Voltage Characteristic 33 2.7 Optical Modes 34 2.8 Beam Divergence 36 2.9 Modulation Characteristics 37 2.10 Temperature Characteristics 39 2.11 Thermal Transient Behavior and Short- Pulse Operation 40 2.12 Other VCSEL Structures 41 2.13 VCSEL Materials 44 2.14 Summary 44 3 VCSEL Industry: Prospects and Products 47 Babu Dayal Padullaparthi 3.1 Industry Background 47 3.2 VCSEL Industry Landscape 55 3.3 VCSEL Commercial Products 68 3.4 Summary 68 4 Data Communications Applications 73 Jim Tatum 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Growing Data 74 4.3 Data Centers and High- Performance Computing 75 4.4 Optical Interconnects 78 4.5 Data Encoding and Multiplexing 84 4.6 High-Speed VCSELs 87 4.7 Optical Link Impairments 95 4.8 Energy Efficient VCSELs 101 4.9 Datacom Market 102 4.10 Summary 102 5 VCSELs for 3D Sensing and Computer Vision 105 Babu Dayal Padullaparthi 5.1 Optical Sensors in Consumer Electronics 105 5.2 Why VCSELs for Smart Optical Sensors? 112 5.3 3D Sensing (Mobile) Products 118 5.4 Computer Vision and Virtual Reality 121 5.5 3D Sensing Mobile and Camera Industry Prospects (until 2025) 125 5.6 Summary 126 6 Automotive LiDARs 129 Babu Dayal Padullaparthi 6.1 Introduction to LiDARs 129 6.2 Operating Principle of LiDARs 134 6.3 VCSELs in LiDAR Industry: Landscape and Direction 137 6.4 Key Aspects of LiDARs 140 6.5 Examples of VCSEL- and EEL-Based LiDARs 146 6.6 Automotive Communication: IVE (Infotainment) and C- V2X 152 6.7 Market Summary 153 7 Illumination, Night Vision, and Industrial Heating 159 Jim Tatum 7.1 Introduction 159 7.2 Optical Properties of Illumination Sources 159 7.3 Commercial Examples of VCSEL Illuminators 161 7.4 VCSEL-Based Industrial Heating 164 7.5 Summary 167 8 Single-Mode VCSELs for Sensing Applications 169 Kenichi Iga and Jim Tatum 8.1 Introduction 169 8.2 Single-Mode VCSELs 169 8.3 Single-Mode VCSEL Application Examples 176 8.4 Summary 185 9 Single-Mode VCSELs for Communications Applications 189 Kenichi Iga and Jim Tatum 9.1 Introduction 189 9.2 LW-VCSEL Design and Manufacturing 190 9.3 Quantum Communications 193 9.4 Summary 195 10 Future Prospects 199 Babu Dayal Padullaparthi, Kenichi Iga, and Jim Tatum 10.1 VCSEL Industry 199 10.2 Datacom VCSELs 200 10.3 VCSEL Arrays for 3D Sensing (Short Distance) 200 10.4 VCSEL Arrays for 3D Sensing and Imaging (Long Distance) 201 10.5 kW-Level VCSEL Arrays for Industrial and Night Vision 201 10.6 Single-Mode VCSELs for Communication and Sensing 202 10.7 Quantum Technologies 202 10.8 Neuromorphic/Neurophotonic Technologies 202 10.9 Biomedical/Bio-Photonic Applications 203 10.10 New Directions of VCSEL Technologies (as of March 2021) 203 10.11 Concluding Remarks 204 References 205 Appendix A VCSELs Design Engineering 207 Babu Dayal Padullaparthi Appendix B Epitaxial Growth Engineering 221 Babu Dayal Padullaparthi Appendix C Wafer Process Engineering 235 Babu Dayal Padullaparthi Appendix D Wafer Level Testing 245 Jim Tatum Appendix E Reliability and Product Qualification 255 Jim Tatum Appendix F Eye Safety Considerations 273 Jim Tatum Appendix G Laser Displays and TV 277 Kenichi Iga Appendix H Red VCSELs 287 Jim Tatum Appendix I GaN- Based VCSELs 291 Kenichi Iga Appendix J Photodetectors 297 Babu Dayal Padullaparthi Image Gallery 311 Index 313